英國(guó)碩士論文寫(xiě)作范文

1、英國(guó)碩士論文寫(xiě)作范文美國(guó)的復(fù)蘇與再投資法案2007年12月全球的經(jīng)濟(jì)已陷入衰退,但直到2008年11月下旬才正式宣布。衰退定義 為“基于大量的經(jīng)濟(jì)指標(biāo)，如就業(yè)和收入，經(jīng)濟(jì)各領(lǐng)域的活動(dòng)持續(xù)超過(guò)了兒個(gè)月顯著減少” (crs, 2009) o 2009年的財(cái)政年度預(yù)算赤字為1.4萬(wàn)億美元，占國(guó)內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值(gdp)的10%, 而全國(guó)的失業(yè)率飆升到1月份的7. 6%,高于2007年12月開(kāi)始衰退時(shí)的4. 9%,對(duì)于大多數(shù)的 國(guó)家來(lái)說(shuō)，2011財(cái)年嚴(yán)重的預(yù)算赤字將達(dá)到3500億美元(kaiser基金會(huì),2009年)。聯(lián)邦政府對(duì)國(guó)家的財(cái)政援助項(xiàng)目并不是一個(gè)新的方法。在1973年到1975年的經(jīng)濟(jì)衰退 時(shí)期，

2、美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)頒布了重振經(jīng)濟(jì)的財(cái)政援助項(xiàng)目(arfa)以及通過(guò)了全面就業(yè)和培訓(xùn)法案 (ceta)為美國(guó)提供基礎(chǔ)建設(shè)的資金。布什政府最近頒布了美國(guó)就業(yè)及經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)的稅收減免和 解法案(jgtrra)來(lái)應(yīng)對(duì)在過(guò)去十年的早期的緩慢復(fù)蘇(馬頓等,2010)。連續(xù)的伊拉克和阿富 汗戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的同時(shí)啟動(dòng)成本，同時(shí)上屆政府為了尋求經(jīng)濟(jì)迅速惡化以及任期內(nèi)的巨額赤字的直接 影響而制定了減稅政策(國(guó)會(huì)預(yù)算辦公室,2010)。american recovery and reinvestment act economics essaythe economy was in recession in december 2007, bu

3、t was not officially declared until late november of 2008. recession is defined as a "significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months and based on a number of economic indicators, such as employment and income (crs, 2009). the budget deficit fo

4、r the fiscal year 2009 in the amount of $ 1.4 trillion, 10 % of the gross domestic product (gdp), and the spike in the national unemployment rates to reach 7.6 % in january of that year, up from 4.9 % at the beginning of the recession in december of 2007, in addition to the severe budget deficits fo

5、r the majority of the states to reach $ 350 billion through the 2011 fiscal year (the kaiser foundation, 2009).the fiscal assistance programs of federal support to the states are not a new approach. during the recession period of 1973 to 1975, the congress enacted the anti-recession fiscal assistane

6、e (arfa) program and passed the comprehensive employment and training act (ceta) to provide infrastructure funding for the states. most recently the bush administration had enacted the jobs and growth tax relief reconciliation act (jgtrra) for the states to deal with the slow recovery during the ear

7、ly years of the past decade (mattoon et al, 2010). the cost of the two consecutive wars in iraq and afghanistan which were initiated simultaneously, along with the enactment of the tax cuts during the previous administration were sought to have a direct impact on the rapid deterioration of our econo

8、my and the huge deficits during this term (cbo, 2010).the estimated impacts of 出書(shū) 11 年薦刊老編輯 q2043944129 the changes in tax laws during the bush administration started by the enactment of the economic growth and tax relief reconciliation act (egtrra), and later, by the enactment of the jobs and growt

9、h tax relief reconciliation act of 2003 (jgtrra); nevertheless, the stimulus package of the 2008, altogether accounted for the 1.7 trillion in extra deficits from 2001 through 2008, and a total of $ 3.4 trillion over the period from 2009 to 2019 (cbo, 2010).the enactment of arra was intended to prov

10、ide the states with the immediate, but temporary, fiscal relief. it was the first economic stimulus to infuse $288 billion in tax cuts for individuals and busi nesses, $224 billio n for education, health care, and unemployment insura nee, and $275 billion to improve the infrastructure spending targe

11、ted to job creation and investment in the form of federal contracts, grants, and loans (mattoon et al, 2010). the overall package was then expected to cost a total of $787 billion il included significant funding for health care , $ 149 billion in health spending of which $ 87 billion was for a tempo

12、rary increase in the federal share of medicaid cost, $ 25 billion for temporary (cobra) subsides, and $ 19.2 billion on health information technology (hit) (the kaiser family foundation, 2009).this paper will address the fiscal aftermath of the arra on the state fiscal budgets and its implications o

13、n the long term costs in the united states.analysis of arra專利申請(qǐng)論文斧正老師q2798419225john w. kingdoms "stream theory model of policy process is instructive to the analysis of this paper. according to kingdon, agenda setting is the first stage in the policy process. the policy agenda is the list of i

14、ssues or problems to which government officials, or those who make policy decisions (including the voting public), pay serious attention. moving an idea onto or higher up on that agenda involves three processes: problems, proposals, and politics (harvard family research project, 2007). kingdon opine

15、s that a policy soup of three streams (problem, policy and politics) converge to create a metaphoric window of opportunity in which change can occur. (citation) this paper will discuss the problem streams, political streams and policy streams that converged creating the opportunity to enact and impl

16、ement of arrathe 2009 environment that defined the problem, policy and political streamspresident obama,s, theme song during his 2008 presidential campaign was “signed, sealed, delivered” by artist and composer stevie wonde匚 that theme song was a poignant premonition to the passing of the american r

17、ecovery and reinvestment act (arra) on february 17, 2009 the new administration "signed, sealed, and delivered a stimulus package promising to boost a recession driven deflated economy. it can be argued that without this unprecedented action, the economy would have continued in a fast moving do

18、wnward spiral possibly ending in a depression key indicators of the magnitude of the problem within the context of healthcare: problem strea m.kingdons problem stream of policy analysis involves focusing on and defining the problem. in 2009, the united states was faced with the largest economic cris

19、is since the great depression (w, 2011). arrawas created not as reform but as an immediate temporary economic relief. (citation) it was enacted at a time when the u.s. gross domestic product (gdp) was decreasing at a yearly rate of 6 percent and employment was dropping at a rate of 750,

20、000 jobs per month, (council of economic advisers, 2010). according to the kaiser foundation, (2009) a 1% increase in unemployment can lead to one million more medicaid and chip enrollees plus 1million additional uninsured, which will create a greater pressure on the state spending and the long term

21、 care costs. not to mention the trillion dollar scale national budget deficit.politics that played a role in the passage of arra: political stream.the political stream of king don's policy analysis theory causes the developme nt a list of issues to be resolved. additionally, the visible cluster

22、of policy actors is active and bargaining occurs in this stream (henry, n，2007). president obama and the democratic controlled congress cind house along with two republican senators from maine were the major players in the passage of the arra (citation). the act provided for an infusion of state fun

23、ding for spending on health care, the extension of unemployment benefits, tax cuts for the middle class, educational improvement and infrastructure rebuilding that would provide employment (citation). the "recovery act" was the largest countercyclical (define) fiscal stimulus in american h

24、istory (citation)the financial crisis involving the explosion of the housing market and the ensuing collapse of major wall street firms in 2007-2008 was a key reason for the economic downturn. (citation). the collapse of lehman brothers and other large financial institutions caused credit spreads to

25、 rise and key sources of credit to dry up (citation). swift action was clearly needed by someone in order to avoid a complete collapse of the us financial market (citation). the entire financial system was in a state of peril and swift economic decline (citation). a policy change was needed to creat

26、e long lasting financial stability for the us (citation).opposing political views agendathere were other visible players in this swift policy change that opposed arra, conservatives had many criticisms for the new act, and they had their own solution to the declining economic status. the agenda for

27、conservatives and republicans alike was to say “no" to all that the president was trying to accomplish with arrp. conservative pundits and leaders believed tax cuts to small businesses and reduced governmental spending was the answe匚 according to the economic policy institute, in sept. 2010 for

28、mer house minority leader john boehner introduced a two step job creation plan that would result in a full extension of the bush-eratax cuts changes and changes to domestic policy boehner proposed a two year freeze on all tax rates and return to spending similar to the fiscal year 2008. although boe

29、hner's claim that retuming to bush's economic policies would hcreate jobs/' it was determined that it would have prevented over a million jobs to be created the congressional budget office (cbo) and the economic policy institute both agree that it was not the best way to promote growt. t

30、he economic policy institute reported that boehner's proposal would have ultimately increased the overall deficit by 30 million. moreover, boehner's plan would have been detrimental to the investment deficit and long term growthaccording to the economic policy institute, the center on budget

31、 and policy priorities, and the center for american progress other areas of the arra that were opposed by the republicans, included, an increased investment in clean energy technology, healthcare reform and extension of the temporary assistance for needy families; all areas that create jobs (citatio

32、n). when the americans united for change, a liberal funded labor group, accused house republicans of opposing middle class americans f asserted that it's all a matter of opinion, "congressional republicans didn't oppose the stimulus bill or the budget because they hate middl

33、e-class tax cuts, working families and economic recovery. they opposed the budget because it would increase spending and add to the deficit, and the arra because it would increase spending and because of a concern that it won" change the gross domestic product (or could reduce it slightly) in t

34、he long termm (f, 2009).it can be argued that the two main political factions and many advocacy groups may have been divided on the cause of our failing economy and how to fix the problem however, we opine that it was evident that the national media, political, public and private opinion

35、 agreed that something had to change state governments faced insurmountable fiscal challenges that had to be averted due to a loss of revenue due to job losses and decreased tax collections and an increase in the number of people who would be able to qualify for state funded programs like medicaid (

36、citation). policy entrepreneurs like newly appointed heads of federal agencies; state governments and community advocates had a personal stake in the matter. heads of agencies had a professional reputation to protect and state's had worsening budget crisis to end. more importantly, president oba

37、ma won on the platform of change this was the impetus for the convergence of the three of kingdoms streams of policy process (problem, policy and political) it is evident from the facts that the metaphoric window of opportunity opened just in time to effect fiscal change on such a large scale and en

38、act arrain terms of kingdon's phases, both parties were ultimately able to undergo what kingdon calls the softening up phase in which alternative solutions were able to be discussed. kingdon believes that these three streams meet, a public policy can result.policy solutions significant to econom

39、ic relief: policy stream.the agenda is formulated in kingdon's policy stream of policy analysis. the policy behind arra was to stimulate job creation and strengthen state budgets (citation). a major hurdle was going to be costs and accountability for the spending was it technically feasible? cou

40、ld it be sustained? what was going to be the costs and cost effectiveness? retrospectively, the answers are in the affirmative the following discusses the impact of the stimulus plan on state budgetsthe short term effect of the arra created a positive outlook by creating more jobs and thereby increa

41、sing the gdp; however, the long term effect is dependent on the availability of additional funds according to u.s. budget watch (2009), over time the economic impact of the act would increase the economic growth on yearly basis until the fy 2013, by creating 1.2 million to 3.6 million jobs by the en

42、d of the fy 2010, and by improving the gdp to 3.3 % (citation). moreover, it has been estimated that the costs of this act would pass the original $787 billion by incurring an additional total cost of $ 50 billion by the year 2018 (cbo, 2009).the council of economic advisers (cea) to the president i

43、n september of 2009 reported that a very important element of the arra has been the impact it has made on state budgets and fiscal relief. according to cea, aid to the states helped to avert large tax increases and slashes to important social programs and services provided to persons in need by the

44、state governments (citation). because of the great loss of employment in many states, it in creased the number of people eligible for medicaid services, deepening the burden to most states budgets crisis. those states received more of the arra moneymedicaid is a government plan that provides health

45、insurance for persons and families with incomes below certain levels; this level varies according to the state you reside the federal government provides x amount of dollars for their medicaid expenses as determined by the federal medical assistance program or fmap to each state for each person enro

46、lled in the medicaid program (cea, 2009). the more people enroll in the program, the more the state has to spend x amount of dollars per person. arra made changes to the fmap calculations and allowed states to maintain budget shortfalls for a short period of time, states would still need to make imp

47、ortant decisions and budget cuts in order to balance their budgets, this was only a temporaryfix. pursuant to it's healthcare provisions, arra provided for a temporary increase in the fmaps ($86.6 billion), extension on the moratoria on medicaid regulations ($105 million), prompt pay requirement

48、s ($680 million), extension of transitional medical assistance ($1.3 billion), cobra provision subsidy ($24.7 billion), hit ($19.2 billion), community health centers ($1.5 billion), comparative effectiveness research ($1.1 billion), expansion of primary care workforce ($500 million), blocking of pay

49、ment reduction to teaching hospitals and hospice providers and make technical corrections for long term care payments ($338 million). (american recovery and reinvestment act: medicaid and healthcare provisions, kff, march 2009). the purpose for this relief was to support the state with funds during

50、the increase demand as the unemployment rate continued to spike. although, the national unemployment rate hit 7.6 % in january 2009, some states were at much higher levels (citation)accountability and transparencystates and arraa regional look at how arra funds were used: success storiesstates, coun

51、ties, cities and suburbs are important economic agents that not only provide services important to functioning of regional economies, but also serve as major employers to the state residents (citation). the arra provided a much needed partnership between state and federal governmental services to ea

52、se the state fiscal crisis (citation). the arra provided temporary fiscal assistance to stabilize state budgets; it provided employment for its residents as a response to the consequences of the economic downturn, it strengthened and stabilized the housing market, it provided investment into local t

53、ransportation and transit, and it also enhanced municipal credit (muro, m. & hoene, c,2009).most states and the virgin islands have formed or projected ways to track, present oversight, and give out information relating to federal stimulus funds. governors have created ways, state agencies are r

54、ecording projects, and legislatures are forming commissions or committees to manage the american recovery and reinvestment act (arra) (national conference of state legislatures, ncls, 2010).new jersey fundingnew jersey t distributions of funds are represented in figure 2according to the states websi

55、te new jersey will collect about $17.5 billion in total reimbursements over the three years from arra(this $17.5 billion estimate is based on an analysis that accounts for about 70% - or $550 billion - of the total cost of the recovery package (nj recovery and reinvestment, 2010). according to figur

56、e 2, 42% of new jerseyans will receive tax benefits from arrathe rest of the funds will be used for road and rail network and energy projects; education and job preparation; saving jobs and protecting vital services; medicaid and other social safety net programs. according to the states website new

57、jersey will obtain roughly $2.2 billion in supplementary medicaid support over three federal fiscal years this added money will help to prevent the worst cuts in service and allow the state to guard the most at risk populations through this fiscal crisis. the increase is in recognition of the staten

58、s growing health care costs, including the increasing numbers of uninsured medicaid enrollment grew by 8 percent or 84,000 people last year.figure 4.pennsylvania fundingin pennsylvania, according to the states website, the economic recovery plan provides about $5.3 billion to increase access to qual

59、ity health care for vulnerable populations. the funding will help to create the pennsylvania health information exchange (ph1x), health information technology through electronic health or medical records, (emr, ehr). the objectives in pennsylvania with arra are to ease the impact of rising health care costs without reducing coverage to those in need of coverage.new york fundingnew york has been no different than the two previous states with the use of the arra funds. according to the new york state figure 5economic recovery and reinvestment cabinet, 2009,