On the Role of Language Input and Language Output in Second Language Acquisition

1、 畢業(yè)論文On the Role of Language Input and Language Output in Second Language Acquisition學(xué) 院：外國語學(xué)院專 業(yè)： 姓 名： 指導(dǎo)老師： 英語專業(yè)黃靖婷 學(xué) 號： 職 稱： 0810203010張嬪講師中國珠海二一 年 五 月北京理工大學(xué)珠海學(xué)院畢業(yè)論文誠信承諾書本人鄭重承諾：我所呈交的畢業(yè)論文On the Role of Language Input and Language Output in Second Language Acquisition是在指導(dǎo)教師的指導(dǎo)下，獨立開展研究取得的成果，文中引用他人的觀

2、點和材料，均在文后按順序列出其參考文獻，論文使用的數(shù)據(jù)真實可靠。承諾人簽名： 日期： 年 月 日On the Role of Language Input and Language Output in Second Language AcquisitionABSTRACTNowadays, the phenomenon of fake prosperity in language teaching in China has sparked a hot debate. Many language learners who take part in exams such as IELTS and

3、BEC find that it is difficult to get a high score in speaking and writing compared to listening and reading. In addition, many college students who passed the exam of CET4 and CET6 cannot use English appropriately, even though they have learned this language for over 10 years. The root of this pheno

4、menon is that Chinese students always neglect the importance of achieving a balance between language input and language out in second language acquisition. This paper mainly analyses the reason why language learners should pay attention to the balance between language input and language output, as w

5、ell as the important role of language input and language output in second language acquisitionKey Words: language input language output second language acquisition試論語言輸入與語言輸出在二語習(xí)得中的作用摘 要 如今，我國外語教學(xué)“假繁榮”現(xiàn)象十分嚴重，學(xué)習(xí)外語者比比皆是，可是實際數(shù)據(jù)顯示我國學(xué)生在參加國外考試如雅思，BEC等考試時，相比起聽力與閱讀部分，口語以及寫作部分的成績偏低。另外，有許多通過英語大學(xué)四六級考試的學(xué)生感嘆自己學(xué)的

6、是 “啞巴英語”,所學(xué)的內(nèi)容不會運用，不能與人交流。究其原因，是因為許多語言學(xué)習(xí)者在第二語言習(xí)得過程中，忽略了語言學(xué)習(xí)的本質(zhì)，更突出的問題是割裂了“語言輸入”與“語言輸出”之間的關(guān)系，在外語學(xué)習(xí)的過程中沒有給予兩者同等的重視。有鑒于此，通過學(xué)習(xí)Krashen的語言輸入理論以及swain的語言輸出理論，筆者意圖通過本研究揭示“語言輸入”與“語言輸出”在外語教學(xué)過程中的關(guān)系與作用及其兩者間的平衡對二語習(xí)得產(chǎn)生的重要性，并借此提高廣大外語學(xué)習(xí)者對此的重視程度。摘要：語言輸入 語言輸出 二語習(xí)得 ContentsAbstract.摘要.Literature Review.11.1 Input Hypo

7、thesis.11.1.1 An Overview of Input.31.1.2 The Limitations of Input Hypothesis.31.2 Output Hypothesis.41.2.1 Definition of Output.41.2.2 An Overview of Comprehensible Output Hypothesis.41.2.3 Functions of Output.51.2.3.1 The “Noticing/Triggering” Function.51.2.3.2 Hypothesis Testing.61.2.3.3 The Meta

8、-linguistic Function.6Clarification of Relevant Concepts. 92.1 Acquisition VS. Learning.92.2 Second Language VS. Foreign Language.10The Relationship between Input and Output.113.1 Input Precedes Output.133.2 Output Supplements Input.14The Balance between Language Input and Language Output in TEFL Cl

9、asses for Chinese Students.174.1 The Importance of Balance between Language Input and Language Output.184.2 Classroom Activities.194.2.1 Roughly-tuned Input.204.2.2 Finely-tuned Input.214.2.3 Communicative Output.21Conclusion.22References.23Acknowledgements.24 Literature Review1.1 Input HypothesisIn

10、put Hypothesis, advanced by Krashen, a famous American applied linguist, in the late 1970s and the early 1980s, is an all-round theory concerning second language acquisition (SLA). Meanwhile, it is the most influential and controversial theory in second language acquisition research. Such influences

11、 still exist till now. Krashens Input Hypothesis is similar to Chomskys theory on first language acquisition in some respects, such as the function of Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in the process of language learning.Krashen states that language input plays an identical part with Language Acquis

12、ition Device. Together with language input, a learner can construct a series of internal expressions of a good language, in other words, construct an independent language system outside the learners first language (Jia Guanjie, 1996).According to Krashen, an important condition for language acquisit

13、ion to occur is that the acquirer understands (via hearing and reading) input language that contains structure “a bit beyond” his or her current level of competence. In other words, the language which learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can und

14、erstand most of it but is still challenged to make progress.Krashens widely known and well-accepted theory of second language acquisition has had a large impact in all areas of second language research and teaching since the 1980s. The theory consists of five main hypotheses.(1) The acquisition-lear

15、ning hypothesisKrashen believed that adults have two different ways to develop competence in a language, namely, language acquisition and language learning.Language acquisition is a subconscious process not unlike the way a child learns language. Language acquires are not consciously aware of the gr

16、ammatical rules of the language, but rather develop a “feel” for correctness. Language Learning, on the other hand, refers to the “conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them and being able to talk about them.” Thus language learning can be compared to learning a

17、bout a language.The acquisition-learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Stephen Krashens theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners.(2) The monitor hypothesisThe language that one has subconsciously acquired “initiates our utterances in

18、a second language and is responsible for our fluency,” whereas the language that we have consciously learned acts as an editor in situations where the learner has enough time to edit, is focused on form, and knows the rule, such as on a grammar test in a language classroom or when carefully writing

19、a composition. This conscious editor is called the Monitor.The monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar.(3) The natural order hypothesisT

20、he natural order hypothesis is based on Krashens research findings which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a “natural order” which is predictable.(4) The input hypothesisThe input hypothesis answers the question of how a language acquirer develops competency over time.

21、 It states that a language acquirer who at “l(fā)evel i” must receive comprehensible input that is at “l(fā)evel i+1.” We acquire, in other words, only when we understand language that contains structure that is “a little beyond” where we are now.The input hypothesis is the result of Krashens attempt to exp

22、lain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashens explanation of how second language acquisition takes place.(5) The affective filter hypothesisMotivation, self-confidence, and anxiety all affect language acquisition, in effect raising or lowering the “stic

23、kiness” or “penetration” of any comprehensible input that is receivedThe affective filter hypothesis embodies Krashens view that a number of “affective variables” play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. Theses variables include motivation, self-confidence and anxiet

24、y.1.1.1 An Overview of InputInput is probably one of the most important concepts in SLA. The relation between input and SLA is always a key aspect in the field of SLA. Input, itself, includes all the language signals, i.e. words, phrases and sentences of one particular language, and signals from oth

25、er language that may be brought in through translation, comparison and so on. In language learning it means the linguistic material to which the learner is exposed, i.e. the learners experience of the target language in all its manifestations (Sharwood Smith, 1993). In the classroom teaching, the ef

26、fect of linguistic input is closely connected with the strategy for its transmission to the students. It seems to be a direct and informative signal which conveys semantic sense (Andersen, 1981; Larsen-Freeman, 1991; Nunan, 1995). In language acquisition, input plays an indispensable role. However,

27、the role of input in language acquisition is always a controversial question. Behaviorists and Mentalists differ greatly on it.1.1.2 The Limitations of Input HypothesisWe should also point out that there are many limitations to the Input Hypothesis theory. First, Krashen emphasizes the importance of

28、 input in language acquisition, but the definition of input is narrow, as he advocates natural input while neglecting non-natural input, this is impossible for Chinese learners of English to be in the real situation of communication. Whats more, Krashen emphasizes much more on the input than output;

29、 this will impede students communicative ability. Krashen theory also neglects the role of learners themselves, without positive motivation and attitude of learning foreign language; the input alone would not be enough for SLA. 1.2 Output Hypothesis Among many methods and techniques that aim to faci

30、litate the development of the learners first language grammar, the role of output in SLA is relatively unexplored. A common assumption is that output is only an indication of SLA that has already taken place and does not play any significant role in language acquisition process (Krashen, 1985). But

31、this assumption has come into question since the publication of Swains (1985) seminal article, in which the Output Hypothesis was first proposed.1.2.1 Definition of OutputSwain put forward the theory of “Output Hypothesis” in relation to second language acquisition. In her work, there appeared some

32、terms synonymous with output such as “Producing language” (Swain,1995:125), “producing the target language”, “l(fā)anguage performance”, “using the language” and “speaking or writing” (Swain, 1995:127), and production or use” (Swain&Lapkin,1995:371). It seems that output in Swains term is dynamic; it no

33、t only refers to the language produced by learners but also the process of producing the target language. We will adopt Swains view of output here.The definition of output can be found in Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics as part of that of “input”: (in language learning)

34、 language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn. The language a learner produces is by analogy sometimes called “output” (Richards, J.C., Platt, J. &Platt, H., 2000:227). In this case, output simply means the language a learner produces compared with what the learner r

35、eceives.1.2.2 An Overview of Comprehensible Output HypothesisBased on findings from studies that Swain conducted on immersion students in Canada, she found that although immersion students were provided with a rich source of comprehensible input, their inter-language performance was still off-target

36、, that is, they were clearly identifiable as non-native speakers or writers (Swain, 1984, 1985). She therefore doubted whether comprehensible input on its own is sufficient for second language acquisition.Output helps us make our knowledge more “automatic” through practice and by providing a domain

37、for error correction, which helps us arrive at a better version of our rule. This approach is also known as “direct teaching” or formal instruction.The comprehensible output hypothesis maintains that language acquisition occurs when we say something and our conversational partner do not understand,

38、forcing us to notice a gap in our competence. We then try again until we arrive at the correct version of the rule.Swains hypothesis about the role of output in foreign language learning and her notion, output in dialogue, has beneficially enlarged our scope and deepened our understanding about how

39、the process of output production can facilitate learning process. All her ideas about output can be concisely generalized in one sentence: learners production of the target language in a specific context can facilitate their learning process, leading to their improvements of the target language.1.2.

40、3 Functions of OutputIn applied linguistics (in its narrow sense), much work has been focused on the role of input and comprehension. Although the importance of output had drawn attention from some western researchers, no systematic study of it had been conducted until Swains (1985, 1995) research o

41、f Canadian immersion program. The situation at home is even more unsatisfactory. So far as this writer knows, there is little study that is concerned with the function of output in Chinas foreign language teaching.Since the function of output to enhance the fluency has now been widely known and acce

42、pted, Swain does not include this in her hypothesis. Instead, she proposes the other three functions that output serves in promoting accuracy.1.2.3.1 The “Noticing/Triggering” FunctionThe “noticing/triggering” function is also referred to as consciousness-raising function. Swain(1995) argues that la

43、nguage production may trigger learners noticing of problems existing in their inter-language, that is, in producing the target language, learners may notice a gap between what they want to say and what they can say, leading them to recognize what they dont know, or know only partially of producing t

44、he target language may prompt second language learners to consciously recognize some of their linguistic problems; it may bring to their attention something they need to discover about their L2 (Swain, 1995:125-126). This may trigger cognitive process which might generate linguistic knowledge that i

45、s new for learners, or which consolidate their existing knowledge （Swain & Lapkin,1994）.Swain and Lapkin found that there were 190 occasions in which students encountered a linguistic problem in their output. In each case the students forced themselves to modify their output toward greater message c

46、omprehensibility. That is, communicative needs forced students to move from semantic to syntactic analysis of the target language.Swain and Lapkin （Swain & Lapkin,1994:384） argued that “on each occasion, the students engaged in mental processing that may have generated linguistic knowledge that is n

47、ew for the learner, or consolidated existing knowledge.” In other words, it was argued that in the process of modifying their IL utterances in the direction of greater comprehensibility, L2 learners were engaged in some restructuring of system which affected their access to the knowledge base, and t

48、hat this restructuring process was part of second language learning.1.2.3.2 Hypothesis TestingThe second role of output is hypothesis testing. Producing output is a way of testing a hypothesis about comprehensibility or linguistic well-formedness of their inter-language against feedback obtained fro

49、m the interlocutors. This function of output relates directly to the notion of comprehensible output proposed by Swain. By producing output, learners can test their hypotheses, and by being pushed in the process of negotiation of meaning, learners can be more accurate in their production. Sometimes

50、this output invokes feedback which can lead learners to modify or “reprocess” their output. Speaking allows the speaker to control the agenda and to take risks and look for feedback on the points of uncertainty in a developing grammar (Swain, 1995). Several studies have been conducted to test this f

51、unction. The results from the studies related to the hypothesis-testing function of output (Nobuyoshi & Ellis, 1993; Pica, 1988, 1992; Pica, Holliday, Lewis & Morgenthaler, 1989; Takashima, 1994) show that learners often modify their output in response to the linguistic demands of comprehensible out

52、put may have a long-term effect.1.2.3.3 The Meta-linguistic FunctionThe meta-linguistics refers to the total sum of knowledge about language which learners have. It is an embryonic form about linguistic form, structure and system which they obtained by reflection and analysis. It is claimed that as

53、learners reflect upon their own target language use, their output serves a meta-linguistic function, enabling them to control and internalize linguistic knowledge (Swain, 1995: 126). In other words, output may cause the learner to engage in more syntactic progressing than is necessary for the compre

54、hension of input. This syntactic progressing may lead to modified or reprocessed outputa possible step toward language acquisition.The results of the studies focusing on the meta-linguistic function of output (Dnato,1994; Lapierre,1994; Swain,1995) lend some support to the claim that producing langu

55、age and reflection on it in an attempt to create meaning have positive effects on language learning process. Learners obtain meaning by negotiation; the content of negotiation is the structural form of language relating the form of language with the meaning they attempt to express, learners express the meaning with language, and then reflect the form of language. So output can cause the learner to