interlanguage-theory-中介語理論

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上Interlanguage theory Interlanguage theory1. Behaviorist learning theoryThe dominant psychological theory of the 1950s and 1960a was behaviorist learning theory. According to this theory, language learning is like any other kind of learning in that it involves habit formation. Habits are

2、 formed when learners respond to stimuli in the environment and subsequently have their responses reinforced so that they are remembered. Thus, a habit is a stimulusresponse connection. Learning took place when learners had the opportunity to practice making the correct respond to a given stimulus.I

3、t should be clear that behaviorist account of L2 acquisition emphasize only what can be directly observed and ignore what goes on in the black box of the learners mind. Learners frequently do not produce output that simply reproduces the input. In short, learning is not just a response to external s

4、timuli.2. A mentalist（精神第一性論者） theory of language learningThe obvious inadequacies of behaviorist explanations of L2 acquisition led researchers to look towards an alternative theoretical framework. From a preoccupation with the role of nurture(養(yǎng)育) (i.e. How environmental factors shape learning), re

5、searchers switched their attention to nature (i.e. how the innate properties of the human mind shape learning). This new paradigm was, therefore, mentalist (or nativist) in orientation. In the 1960s and 1970s a mentalist theory of first language acquisition emerged. According to this theory:1) Only

6、human beings are capable of learning language.2) The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning language, referred to as a Language Acquisition Device. This is separate from the faculties responsible for other kinds of cognitive activity.3) This faculty is the primary determinant of language

7、 acquisition.4) Input is needed, but only to trigger the operation of the language acquisition device.3. What is interlanguage（中介語）?The term interlanguage was coined by the American linguist, Larry Selinker（拉里塞林格），in recognition of the fact that L2 learners construct a linguistic system that draws,

8、in part, on the learners L1 but is also different from it and also from the target language. A learners interlanguage is, therefore, a unique linguistic system.The concept of interlanguage involves the following premises about L2 acquisition;1) The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic

9、rules which underlies comprehension and production of the L2. This system of rules is viewed as a mental grammar（精神語法）and is referred to as an interlanguage.2) The learners grammar is permeable（有滲透性的）. This is, the grammar is open to influence from the outside (i.e. through the input). It is also in

10、fluenced from the inside. 3) The learners grammar is transitional. Learners change their grammar from one time to another by adding rules, deleting rules, and restructuring the whole system. This results in an interlanguage continuum（連續(xù)體）. This is, learners construct a series of mental grammars or i

11、nterlanguages as they gradually increase the complexity of their L2 knowledge.4) Some researchers have claimed that the systems learners construct contain variable rules. That is, they argue that learners are likely to have competing rules at any one stage development. However, other researchers arg

12、ue that interlanguage systems are homogeneous（同種的） and that variability reflects the mistakes learners make when they try to use their knowledge to communicate. These researchers see variability as an aspect of performance rather than competence.5) Learners employ various learning strategies to deve

13、lop their interlanguags. The different kinds of errors learners produce reflect learning strategies.6) The learners grammar is likely to fossilize（僵化）. Selinker suggested that only about five per cent of learners go on develop the same mental grammar as native speakers. The majority stop some way sh

14、ort. Fossilization dose not occur in L1 acquisition and thus is unique to L2 grammars.4. A computational model（計(jì)算模式） of L2 acquisitionFigure 1 represents the basic computational metaphor that has grown out of interlanguage and that informs much of SLA. The learner is exposed to input, which is proce

15、ssed in two stages. First, parts of it are attended to and take into short-term memory. There are referred to as intake. Second, some of intake is stored in long-term memory as L2 knowledge. The processes responsible for creating intake and L2 knowledge occur within the black box of the learner mind

16、 where the learners interlanguage is constructed. Finally, L2 knowledge is used by the learner to produce spoken and written output (i.e. what we have called learner language). input intake L2 knowledge output FIGURE1 A computational model of L2 acquisitionSocial aspects of interlanguageRight from t

17、he beginning, SLA has also acknowledged the importance of social factors. 1. interlanguage as a stylistic continuum（語言連續(xù)體）Drawing on work on variability in learner language, Elaine Tarone（伊萊恩塔龍）has proposed that interlanguage involves a stylistic continuum（語體連續(xù)體）. She argues that learners develop a

18、capability for using the L2 and that this underlies all regular language behaviors. At one end of the continuum is the careful style（細(xì)心語體）, evident when learners are consciously attending to their choice of linguistic forms, as when they feel the need to be correct. At the other end of continuum is

19、the vernacular style（隨意語體）, evident when learners are making spontaneous choices of linguistic form, as is likely in free conversation.Another theory that also draws on the idea of stylistic variation but which is more obviously social is Howard Giless（霍華德賈爾斯） accommodation theory（調(diào)節(jié)理論）. This seeks

20、explain how a learners social group influences the course of L2 acquisition. For Giles the key idea is that of social accommodation. He suggests that when people interact with each other they either try to make their speech similar to that of their addressee in order to emphasize social cohesiveness

21、 (a process of convergence（會(huì)聚）) or to make it different in order to emphasize their social distinctiveness(a process of divergence). That is, when the social conditions are such that learners are motivated to converge on （集中于）native-speaker norm(i.e. Speak like native speakers) high levels of profic

22、iency ensue, but when the conditions encourage learners to maintain their own social in group less learning takes place. According to Giless theory, then, social factors influence interlanguage development via the impact they have on the attitudes that determine the kinds of language use learners en

23、gage in.2. The acculturation model（文化適應(yīng)模式）of L2 acquisitionA similar perspective on the role of social factors in L2 acquisition can be found in John Schumanns（約翰舒曼）acculturation model.Schumann investigated on a 33-year-old Spanish (Alberto) who acquired English in the United States. Result of study

24、: Very little evidence of any linguistic development over 10m was found. When learners fail to acculturate to the target-language group, pidginization（洋涇濱化）(they are unable or unwilling to adapt to a new culture) in L2 acquisition is coming into being.The main reason for learners failing to accultur

25、ate is social distancesocial factors 1) to be socially equal; 2)to assimilate; 3)to share the same social facilities（公共設(shè)施）. The minor reason is psychological distance(心理距離)psychological factors1) Language shock(語言休克) 2)motivation. Social factors in acculturation determine the amount of contact with

26、the L2 individual learners experience and determined how successful they are in learning.The problems in acculturation model are Failing to acknowledge the social factors are not fixed and static（靜態(tài)的）but variable and dynamic and Failing to acknowledge that learners can be both the subject to social

27、conditions and the subject of them.3Social identity and investment in L2 learningThe notion of subject to(受管制)and subject of（管制）are central to Bonny Peirces（邦尼皮爾斯）view of the relationship between social context and L2 acquisition.Learning is successful when learners are able to summon up or construc

28、t an identity so that they can become the subject of a discourse. If someone felt humiliated in the conversation because he found himself positioned as a strange man, someone who doesnt know anything about the discourse. He was subject to a discourse which assumed an identity he doesnt have.Investme

29、nt is that something learners will only make if they believe their efforts will increase the value of their cultural capital（文化資本）.Peirces social theory of L2 acquisition：L2 acquisition=struggle +investment=engage with native speakers + prepare well to challengeSuccessful learner = reflect criticall

30、y + construct and assert social identitiesDiscourse aspects of interlanguage1. Acquiring discourse rulesDiscourse rules refer to the rules or regularities in the ways in which native speakers hold conversations. E.g. A: I like your sweater.B: Its so cold. My sister bought it for me in Italy some tim

31、es ago.L2 learners behave differently. Sometimes they failed to respond to a compliment all. Like just say: thank you!More work is needed to demonstrate which aspects are universal and which language specific are as it is already clear that many aspects of leaner discourse are influenced by the rule

32、s of discourse in the learners L1.2 The role of input and interaction in L2 acquisition1) Different views on input and interactionBehaviorist theory: Input is in the center. Learners acquire language by imitation and habit information.Mentalist theory: Input is just trigger the learners SLA.Integrat

33、ionist（取消隔離）theory: Language acquisition takes place because of both input and learners internal mechanism(內(nèi)在機(jī)理).2) The properties of discourseUngrammatical foreign talk: E.g. a. No drive car. b. Mary () doctor c. You give me water. Deletion of some grammatical featuresGrammatical foreign talk: The

34、ice-creamyou will not forget to buy it on your way homeget it when you are coming home. All right? At a slower pace, simplified, regularized, and elaborated.Baseline（參照）talk: you wont forget to buy the ice-cream on your way home, will you? Native speakers style of talking.3) Negotiation of meaning(意

35、義協(xié)商)When learners still fail to understand, they pretend to they have understood. This results in interactional modifications at the participation in the discourse.A: so where is Dave?B: He vocation.A: Hes on vocation? (Confirmation check)B: Yeah. On vocation. (Comprehension check)A: Lucky guy.3. Th

36、e role of output in L2 acquisitionKrashen argues that speaking is the result of acquisition not its cause. He claims that the only way learners can learn from their output is by treating it as auto-input（自動(dòng)輸入）. In contrast, Merrill Swain（美林斯溫）has argued that output can serve a consciousness-raising

37、function by helping learners to notice gaps in their interlanguages. Second, output can help learners to test hypotheses. Third, learners can talk about their own output, identifying problems with it and discussing ways in which they can be put right.Psycholinguistic（心理語言學(xué)）aspects of interlanguagePs

38、ycholinguistic is the study of the mental structures（心理結(jié)構(gòu)）and processes involved in the acquisition and use of language.1. L1 transferL1 transfer refers to the influence that the learners L1 exerts over the acquisition of L2.The influence is apparent in three ways 1) negative and positive transfer.

39、Negative transfer（負(fù)遷移）: the learners L1 is one of the sources of error in learner language. E.g. drink like an ox vs. drink like fish or bad eggs vs. villains. Positive transfer（正遷移）: positive transfer means that the learners L1 can facilitate his L2 learning. E.g. Chinese learners of English can le

40、arn the sentence following very well: Good morning, Mr. Smith.! Because the logic of “早上好，史密斯先生?！?is the same in English. 2) L1 transfer may be reflected in the overuse of some forms. E.g. L2 learners of English may overgeneralize the regular past tense inflection to irregular verbs in English, such

41、 as eated, putted, etc.3) contrastive analysis. The resulting list of differences was used to make decisions about the content of learning materials. L1 can also result avoidance（職位空缺）. E.g. Chinese and Japanese learners make fewer errors in relative clauses than Arabic learners. Because their langu

42、ages dont contain equivalent structures(等效結(jié)構(gòu)).Behaviorist theories cannot adequately account for L2 acquisition and they fell out of favor in the early 1970s. This led to two developments. 1)the minimalist(抽象主義學(xué)者）view of L1 transfer. They argued that very few errors were the result of L1 transfer. H

43、owever, it has not withstood the test of time.2)Reconceptualize transfer within a cognitive framework （在認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)內(nèi)重新概念化轉(zhuǎn)移）. Larry Selinker identified language transfer as one of the mental processes responsible for fossilization（僵化）. Learners work with whatever information is at their disposal（安排）.2. The

44、 role of consciousness in L2 acquisitionThe comparison: 1) Children acquire their L1 they seem to do so without conscious effort. 2) L2 learners seem to have to work hard and to study the language consciously in order to succeed. What is one of the most controversial issues in SLA? There are two opp

45、osing positions. Stephen Krashen（斯蒂芬克拉申）and Richard Schmidt(理查德施密特).Stephen Krashen: Argued the need to distinguish “acquired” L2 knowledge and “l(fā)earned” L2 knowledge. Acquired L2 knowledge: develop subconsciously through comprehending input while communicating（潛意識(shí)發(fā)展）. “l(fā)earned” L2 knowledge: develo

46、p consciously through deliberate study of the L2（深思熟慮后發(fā)展）.The distinction between the two systems:Acquired L2knowledge (Acquisition)Learned L2 knowledge (Learning)Implicit（暗含的）, subconscious Explicit（明顯的）, conscious Informal situations (communicating) formal situations(deliberate study)uses grammati

47、cal feeluses grammatical rulesThis contradicts skill-building (技能建構(gòu)) theories of L2 acquisition. Richard Schmidt: Consciousness is intentionality & attention（意向性；關(guān)心）, noticingawareness（注意；認(rèn)識(shí)）.Intentionality & attention: Whether learning is intentional or incidental（有意的和順便的）, it involves conscious at

48、tention to features in the input. Learning incidentally is not the same as learning without conscious attention.Noticing & awareness: The process of attending consciously to linguistic features in the input. Input processing involves noticingLinguistic aspects of interlanguage1. Universal Grammar(普遍

49、文法)Noam Chomsky(諾姆喬姆斯基)argues that language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters（參數(shù)）which are given particular settings in different languages.Let us consider an example. Thus, in the English sentence:1) The actress blamed herself.The subject, actress, is co-ref

50、erential(互指) with the reflexive, herself in the sense that both words refer to the same person. However, reflexives also vary cross-linguistically. In the case of English, a reflexive can only co-refers to a subject in another clause, as in the example above. Thus, English only permits local blinding(局部約束). Long-distance binding（長距離回指）, where the reflexive co-refers to a subject in another clause, is prohibited. Thus, in this sentence:2) Emily knew the actress would bl