語言學(xué)概論期末復(fù)習(xí)(男神版)

1、語言學(xué)概論Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1. WhatislanguageSensesoflanguageinWebstersNewWorldDictionary（ourbook,p.2） “Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.（Wardaugh）2. Designfeaturesoflanguage語言設(shè)計特征1. arbitrariness狂意性）2.duality雙重性）3. Creativity創(chuàng)造性）orproductivity4.displacement

2、夠位性）5.interchangeability（互換性）6.specialization華業(yè)化）7.culturaltransmission（文化傳承）3. FunctionsofLanguage語言功能）Jakobsonsview:（情感功能）（指代功能）（詩學(xué)功能）（寒暄功能）（元語言）（1動功能）Hallidaysview:1.ideationalfunction（概念功能）2.Interpersonalfunction（人際功能）3.Textualfunction（語篇功能）Functionsonthebook:傳知，性的）Function（A際功能）（行事功能）FunctionCo

3、mmunion（寒暄功能）Function娛樂功能）Function阮語言功能）4. WhatIsLinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguageorthescienceoflanguage.?1）Exhaustiveness（窮盡性）2）Consistency（貫通性）3）Economy（經(jīng)濟(jì)性）4）Objectivity（客觀性）vs.performance言語能力vs.言語行為?NoamChomskyinhisAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax?Competencereferstoalanguageusersun

4、derlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.?Performancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.Chapter 2Speechsounds1. ConsonantsandvowelsDistinctionbetweenconsonantsandvowels:theobstruction(阻塞)ofairstream2. Minimalpairsandminimalsets(最/J、對立體) Whentwowordsareidenticalineverywayexceptforacontr

5、astinonesoundsegmentoccurringinthesamepositioninthestring,thetwowordsarecalledaminimalpair最小對立體.:pitandbitjunkandchunkbanandbinbetandbat Aminimalpairshouldfollowthreeconditions:1)theyaredifferentinmeaning;2)theydifferonlyinonesoundsegment;3)thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestrings.Chapte

6、r 3Frommorphemetophrase1. Root&affixRoot詞根:morphemewhichisthebasicpartofaword.(Occuronitsown、maybejoinedtootherroots、ortakeaffixes(manly,coldness)orcombiningforms(biochemistry)2 Itisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.3 .AllwordscontainarootmorphemeAffix詞綴:letterorsound,orgroupofletters

7、orsounds(=amorpheme),whichisaddedtoaword,andwhichchangesthemeaningorfunctionoftheword.(Prefix前綴,Suffix后綴，infix中綴：feet,geese)2. inflectionalaffixft折詞綴andderivationalaffix派生詞綴Chapter 5Meaning1. TheReferentialTheory(所指理論)Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor,is

8、knownasthereferentialtheory.Reference所指referstotherelationshipbetweenawordandtheobjectitdenotesinthephysicalworld,.denotation夕卜延inphilosophy.Isaverypopulartheory(semantictrianglebyOgdenandRichardsinMeaningofMeaning)Problemswiththistheory:Noteverywordhasareference所指.2. Senserelations意義關(guān)系Sensemaybedef

9、inedasthesemanticrelationsbetweenonewordandanother,ormoregenerallybetweenonelinguisticunitandanother.*distinctionsbetweensenseandreference:Thedistinctionbetweensenseandreferenceiscomparabletothatbetweenconnotationanddenotationinphilosophy Theformerreferstotheabstractpropertiesofanentity,whilethelatt

10、erreferstotheconcreteentitieshavingtheseproperties. Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.RReferenceinitswidersensewouldbetherelationshipbetweenawordorphraseandanentityintheexternalworld.Sosenseisintra-linguisticandreferenceisextra-llinguistic3. 3kindsofsenserelations:Synonymy（同義關(guān)系）Semanti

11、crelationofsamenessorsimilarityinmeaningoftwoormorelinguisticexpressions.（absolutesynonyms絕對同義詞、relativesynonyms相對同義詞、Stylisticsynonyms文體同義詞、Emotivesynonyms情感同義詞、Collocationalsynonyms：搭酉己同義詞）Antonymy（反義關(guān)系） Relationofsemanticopposition. threemainsub-types：）1Gradableantonymy（等級反義關(guān)系）：Theyaregradable;th

12、edenialofoneisnotnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.Thereisanintermediategroundbetweenthetwo.（hotcoldwarmcooltallshortbigsmall） Complementaryantonymy(互補(bǔ)反義關(guān)系)Themembersofapairinthistypearecomplementarytoeachother.Thereisnointermediategroundbetweenthetwo.(alivedeadoddevensinglemarriedmalefemalepassfail

13、hitmiss) Converseantonymy(相反反義關(guān)系)Themembersofapairinthistypeshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.Theyarealsoknownasrelationalopposites.Therearealwaystwoentitiesinvolved.Onepresupposestheother.(buysellgivereceivehusbandwifeteacherstudentabovebelowbeforeafter)Hyponymy(上下義關(guān)系)Arelationshipbe

14、tweentwowords,inwhichthemeaningofoneofthewordsincludesthemeaningoftheotherword.Sometimesasuperordinatemaybeasuperordinatetoitself.Asuperordinatemaybemissingsometimes.(redgreenyellow)Hyponymsmayalsobemissincj.(unclerice)4. Componentialanalysis（成分分析）Componentialanalysis:（insemantics）anapproachtothestu

15、dyofmeaningwhichanalysesawordintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Usually,componentialanalysisisappliedtoagroupofrelatedwordswhichmaydifferfromoneanotheronlybyoneortwocomponents.Semanticfeatures語義特征orsemanticcomponentsarethebasicunitofmeaninginaword.Themeaningsofwordsmaybedescribedasacombin

16、ationofsemanticfeatures.5. Anintegratedtheory（整體理論）Theideathatthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombinedisusuallyknownastheprincipleofcompositionality（復(fù)合性原則）adictionaryYasemantictheoryLasetofprojectionrules投射規(guī)則Thedictionaryprovidesthegrammaticalclassificat

17、ionandsemanticinformationofwords.Theprojectionrulesareresponsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogether.Chapter 6LanguageandcognitioniscognitionTwodefinitionsaboutcognition: Inpsychologyitreferstothementalprocessesofanindividualwithparticularrelationtotheviewthatarguesthatthemindhasinternalstates（be

18、liefs,desires,andintentions）andcanbeunderstoodintermsofinformationprocessing. Mentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingaspectssuchasawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgement.2. Whatispsycholinguistics（心理語言學(xué)）Definition:isthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguages;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstat

19、esandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.6subjectsofresearchwithinpsycholinguistics:Acquisition（語言習(xí)得）Comprehension語言理解）LanguageandthoughtProduction（語言產(chǎn)出）Disorders（語言無序性）Neurocognition3. WhatisCognitiveLinguisticsDefinition:isanewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflanguage.Chapter 7Language,cu

20、ltureandSociety1. LanguageandCulture Whatisculture:Culture,inabroadsense,meansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustom

21、s,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodcultureetc. TherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureAlanguagenotonlyexpressesfacts,ideas,oreventswhichrepresentsimilarworldknowledgebyitspeople,butalsoreflectsthepeoplesattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooksetc.Inaword,languageexpressesculturalrea

22、lity.2. Sapir-WhorfHypothesis（薩丕爾-沃爾夫假設(shè)）So）irandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeoplesperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.Thishypothesisprimarilysuggeststhatourlanguagewillmouldourviewoftheworld.Butfewpeoplewouldtendto

23、accepttheoriginalforthistheory.Thus,twoversions,strongversionandweakversionhavebeendeveloped.thestrongversion:thelanguagepatternsdeterminepeoplethinkingandbehavior.theweakversion:theformerinfluencesthelatter.3. Languageandsociety Definitionofsociolinguistics（社會語言學(xué)）:Sociolinguisticsisthesub-fieldofli

24、nguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive. Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety1） Whilelanguageisprincipallyusedtocommunicatemeaning,itisalsousedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.2） Usersofthesamela

25、nguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Thekindoflanguageeachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyhissocialbackground.3） Tosomeextent,language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety4） Judgmentsconcerningthecorrectnessandpurityoflinguisticvarietiesares

26、ocialratherthanlinguistic.4. Hallidaysregistertheory:Definitionofregister（語域）:Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Fieldofdiscourse（語場）referstowhatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguage.Tenorofdiscourse（語旨）refers“tcwhomthespeakeriscommunicatingModeofdisco

27、urse（語式）mainlyreferstothemeansofcommunication.Chapter 8Languageinuse1. WhatisPragmaticsthestudyoflanguageinuse.2. Speechacttheory1）Thefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuse,whichoriginatedwiththeOxfordphilosopherJohnLangshawAustin:HowtoDoThingswithWords2）Speechact:anutterance（表達(dá)）asafunctionalunit

28、incommunication.Inspeechacttheory,utteranceshavetwokindsofmeaning:a. propositionalmeaning命題意義（alsoknownaslocutionarymeaning發(fā)話意義）b. illocutionarymeaning行事意義（alsoknownasillocutionaryforce行事語力）.Aspeechactisasentenceorutterancewhichhasbothpropositionalmeaningandillocutionaryforce.3） 2typesofsentences:an

29、utterancePerformatives（施為句；行事話語）whichperformsanactConstative（表述句；述事話語）:anutterancewhichassertssomethingthatiseithertrueorfalse.*Ithasevenbeensuggestedthatthereisnorealdifferencebetweenconstativeandimplicitperformatives.Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings.theoryofthe川ocutionaryact（行事行為理論）Threedifferentty

30、pesofactinvolvedinorcausedbytheutteranceofasentence:Locutionaryact（發(fā)話行為）isthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.Illocutionaryact（行事行為）isusingasentencetoperformafunction,relatedtothespeakerntentionsiPerlocutionaryact（取效行為）istheresultoreffectsthatareproducedbymeansofsayingsomething.4

31、. CategoriesofspeechactsbySearle1. Representative；（闡述類）:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.Iswear）2. Directives（指令類）:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.Yourmoneyoryourlife.）3. Commissives（承諾類）:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.Ipromise.）4. Expressive（表情類）:exp

32、ressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.Thankyou）5. Declarations（宣告類）:bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.youarefired.）theoryofconversationalimplicature會話含義理論ThesecondmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuseproposedbyHerbertPaulGrice:LogicandConversation.1）Definition:Conversationalimplic

33、atureisatypeofmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims2）Characteristicsofimplicature:Qalculability（可計算性）cancellability/defeasibility（可刪除性/可取消性）Non-detachability（非可分離性）Non-conventionality（非規(guī)約性）1. Thecooperativeprinciple合

34、作原貝U:Theco-operationbetweenspeakersinusingtheconversationalmaximsiscalledthecooperativeprinciple.maxim對話準(zhǔn)貝U:anunwrittenruleaboutconversationwhichpeopleknowandwhichinfluencestheformofconversationalexchangesGriceintroduced4categoriesofmaxims:a.themaximofQuantityb.themaximofQualityc.themaximofRelationd

35、.themaximofMannerdevelopments1） Relevancetheory關(guān)聯(lián)理論Definition:Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.（每一個明示交際行為都傳遞一種假設(shè)：該行為本身具備最適宜關(guān)聯(lián)）2） theQ-andR-principleThesetwoprinciplewasproposedbyLaurenceHorn TheQ-principleisintendedtoinvokethefirstmaximofGricesQuanti

36、ty,andtlprincipletheRelationmaxim,butthenewprinciplesaremoreextensivethantheGriceanmaxims. HornreducesalltheGriceanmaximstotwoprinciples:theQ-andR-principleA. TheQ-principle(hearer-based):MakeyourcontributionsufficientSayasmuchasyoucanB. TheR-principle(speaker-based):MakeyourcontributionnecessarySay

37、nomorethanyoumustInotherwords,theQ-principleisconcernedwiththecontent.TheR-principle,ontheotherhand,isconcernedwiththeform.Chapter11LinguisticandForeignLanguageTeaching1. Definition:SLA:Secondlanguageacquisition語習(xí)得CPH:CriticalPeriodHypothesis關(guān)鍵期AK設(shè)UG:UniversalGrammar普遍語法LAD：LanguageAcquisitionDevice語言習(xí)得基質(zhì)IL：Interlanguage中介語CA：ContrastiveAnalysis對比分析EA:ErrorAnalysis錯誤分析2. UniversalGrammar普遍語法Universalgrammarholdsthattherearecertainbasicstructuralrulesthatgovernlanguagethatallhumansknowwithouthavingtolearnthem.3. InputandlanguagelearningLanguageAcquisitionDevice語言習(xí)得基質(zhì)1) KrashensInputHypothesis