第一組法律英語

1、Chapter 7 Substantive Due Process實(shí) 質(zhì) 性 正 當(dāng) 程 序Chapter 9 Fundamental Rights基 本 權(quán) 利Part Four Chapter 1 Introduction 程序正當(dāng)性程序的概念是，正式行動(dòng)必須符合對(duì)個(gè)人的最低公正標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，如果得到充分通知的權(quán)利和在做出裁定之前的有 意義的聽證機(jī)會(huì)等。 美國的正當(dāng)法律程序保護(hù)范圍歷經(jīng)了從刑事到行政、從程序性權(quán)利到實(shí)體性權(quán)利、從特權(quán)到權(quán)利的變化,其保護(hù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)也包括實(shí)體性正當(dāng)法律程序中的理性基礎(chǔ)檢驗(yàn)、嚴(yán)格檢驗(yàn)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和中間層次檢驗(yàn)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),以及程序性正當(dāng)法律程序中的還原立法者意圖、利益均衡、最低限度的程序保障

2、等判斷方法。 違反正當(dāng)法律程序的后果可概括為無效、得撤銷、得補(bǔ)正三種類型。 于我國而言,借鑒正當(dāng)法律程序在美國司法審查中的運(yùn)用,具體確立以事前告知、公平公正、表達(dá)意見機(jī)會(huì)、行政公開為主要內(nèi)容,原則上應(yīng)用于所有行政行為的正當(dāng)法律程序權(quán)行政訴訟,以實(shí)現(xiàn)在具體化、規(guī)范化層面對(duì)行政行為的程序性控制。Basic Principle(基本原則）When Is Individualized （區(qū)別對(duì)待）（區(qū)別對(duì)待） Adjudication（判決）（判決） RequiredIntentional（故意的（故意的 ）Deprivation（剝奪（剝奪) Negligent(疏忽的）疏忽的） Deprivati

3、onLiberty（自由權(quán)）Property（財(cái)產(chǎn)）（財(cái)產(chǎn)）Chapter 7 Substantive Due Process實(shí) 質(zhì) 性 正 當(dāng) 程 序Substantive Due Process 實(shí)質(zhì)性正當(dāng)法律程序的概念首先是由州法院的判決確立起實(shí)質(zhì)性正當(dāng)法律程序的概念首先是由州法院的判決確立起來的。來的。最引人注目的是紐約州上訴法院的判決，其中最為著名的是1856年懷尼哈默訴人民案的判決。該案起因于一項(xiàng)紐約州禁止出售非醫(yī)用烈性酒并禁止在住所之外的任何地方儲(chǔ)放非用于銷售的酒類的法律，紐約州法院認(rèn)為，“該法的實(shí)施，消滅和破壞了這個(gè)州的公民擁有烈性酒的財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)”，這恐怕與正當(dāng)程序條款的精神不符。

4、這一判決的意義在于紐約州法院用實(shí)質(zhì)性正當(dāng)法律程序代替了自然法，對(duì)立法權(quán)進(jìn)行實(shí)質(zhì)性的制約。9年后聯(lián)邦最高法院在威尼訴哈默案中首次將正當(dāng)法律程序條款作為實(shí)體法條款使用。至此，正當(dāng)法律程序開始成為一種防范立法機(jī)關(guān)對(duì)私人財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)不合理干涉的有力工具。1866年，國會(huì)提出了第14條憲法修正案，1867年該修正案被宣布生效。紐約州法院審理懷尼哈默案的推理最終為包括聯(lián)邦最高法院在內(nèi)的美國法院所普遍采納，正當(dāng)法律程序成為了一項(xiàng)真正的憲法制度。第14條修正案是劃時(shí)代條款，“代表了一場(chǎng)真正的憲法革命”。Substantive Due ProcessRelationship Between Substantive D

5、ue Process and Equal Protection The Due Process Clause （正當(dāng)程序條款)and Equal Protection Clause guarantee the fairness of laws substantive due process guarantees that laws will be reasonable and not arbitrary(隨意的）,and equal protection guarantees that similarly situated person will be treated alike. Both

6、guarantees require the Court to review the substance of the law rather than the procedures employed.Substantive Due ProcessWhat Standard of Review Will the Court Apply?Substantive Due Process The Court employs one of three tests in reviewing laws under these clauses, depending on the circumstances 美

7、國最高法院發(fā)展出三種司法審查標(biāo)準(zhǔn)以決定某法律或某政府行為是否剝奪人民之法律平等保護(hù)的權(quán)利。2.Intermediate Scrutiny3.Rational Basis (Minimal Scrutiny)Substantive Due Process The Court uses the strict scrutiny standard when a suspect classification or fundamental right (these terms will be discussed infra) is involved. Under the strict scrutiny s

8、tandard, a law will be upheld （支持，維護(hù)）only if it is necessary to achieve a compelling（引起興趣的）or overriding（最主要的） government purpose. The Court will always consider whether less burdensome（負(fù)擔(dān)的，累贅的） means for accomplishing the legislative（立法權(quán)的） goal are available. Most government action examined under t

9、his test fails.Substantive Due Process2.Intermediate ScrutinyThe Court uses intermediate scrutiny when a classification based on gender or legitimacy(合法合理) is involved. Under the rational basis(合理的基礎(chǔ)） standard, a law will be upheld（被支持） if it is substantially related to an important government purpo

10、se. 3.Rational Basis (Minimal Scrutiny)The rational basis standard is used whenever the other two standards are not applicable (i.e. most legislation). Under the rational basis standard, a law will be upheld if it is rationally related to legitimate（合理的） interest. It is difficult to fail this test,

11、so most governmental action examined under this standard is upheld unless it is arbitrary（任意的） or irrational（不合理的）.Chapter 9 Fundamental Rights基 本 權(quán) 利公民權(quán)利指作為一個(gè)國家的公民所享有的公民資格和與公民資格相關(guān)的一系列政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)和文化權(quán)利。公民權(quán)利是因?yàn)楣裆矸荻〉玫?。在個(gè)國家居住的外國人和無國籍人不能享有公民權(quán)利，但可以受到居住國法律一定程度的保護(hù)。公民權(quán)利的種類涉及到公民的政治權(quán)利、經(jīng)濟(jì)權(quán)利、文化權(quán)利和社會(huì)權(quán)利等諸多方面，這些權(quán)利都由公民國

12、籍所在國的政府為本國公民所承諾的特殊的責(zé)任。般來說，一個(gè)國家憲法和法律中所規(guī)定的政治權(quán)利必須由具有本國國籍的公民享有，而其他權(quán)利，特別是經(jīng)濟(jì)權(quán)利，外國人或無國籍人也可以在遵守居住國法律規(guī)定前提下享有。Fundamental RightsFundamental RightsRight of Privacy(隱私權(quán))Various private rights, including marriage, sexual relations, abortion, and childrearing, are fundamental rights. Thus, regulations affecting t

13、hese rights are reviews under the strict seruiny standard and will be uphold only if they are necessary to a compelling interest.MarriageThe rights of a male and female to enter into (and, probably, to dissolve) a marriage relationship is a fundamental rights. Although not all cases examining marria

14、ge regulations clearly use the compelling interest standard , a law prohibiting a class of adults from marrying is likely to be invalidated unless the government can demonstrate that the law is narrowly tailored to promote a compelling or overriding or, at least, important interest.Fundamental Right

15、sUse of ContraceptivesA state cannot prohibit distribution of nonmedical contraceptives to adults except thought licensed pharmacists, nor prohibit sales of such contraceptives to persons under 16 who do not have approval of a licensed physician.AbortionThe supreme Court has held that the right of p

16、rivacy includes the right of a woman to have an abortion under certain circumstances without undue interference from the states. Roe v.Wade,410U.S.113(1993)However, because the Court has held that the states have a compelling interest in protecting the health of both the woman and the fetus that may

17、 become a child, it is difficult to apply the normal “strict scrutiny” analysis to abortion regulations since these two compelling interests may conflict with each other and with the regarding abortions and the Justices have not come to agreement on any applicable stangard.Right to VoteFundamental R

18、ightsThe right of all United States citizens over 18 years of age is mentioned in the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Nineteenth, is Twenty-Fourth, and Twenty-Sixty Amendments. It extends to all national and state government elections, including primaries. The right is fundamental; thus, restrictions on voti

19、ng, other than on the basic of age, residency, or c i t i z e n s h i p , a r e i n v a l i d u n l e s s t h e y c a n p a s s s t r i c t s c r u t i n y. International TravelThe Supreme court has not yet decleared that the right to internatioal travel is fundamental, although the right appears to

20、 be protected from arbitrary federal interference by the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. Securityhe Court has held that this right is not violated when the federal government refuses to pay Socialty benefits to persons who leave the country. The test is “mere rationality, not strict scrut

21、tiny.”Congress may give executive branch the power to revoke the passport of a person whose conduct in another countrypresents a danger to United States foreign policy. The Treasury Department, with congressional authorization, could restrict travel to and from Cuba without violating the Fifth Amend

22、ment.Part Four Chapter 1 Introduction 合同是當(dāng)事人或當(dāng)事雙方之間設(shè)立、變更、終止民事關(guān)系的協(xié)議。依法成立的合同，受法律保護(hù)。廣義合同指所有法律部門中確定權(quán)利、義務(wù)關(guān)系的協(xié)議。狹義合同指指一切民事合同。還有最狹義合同僅指民事合同中的債權(quán)合同。中華人民共和國民法通則第85條：合同是當(dāng)事人之間設(shè)立、變更、終止民事關(guān)系的協(xié)議。依法成立的合同，受法律保護(hù)。中華人民共和國合同法第2條：合同是平等主體的自然人、法人、其他組織之間設(shè)立、變更、終止民事權(quán)利義務(wù)關(guān)系的協(xié)議。婚姻、收養(yǎng)、監(jiān)護(hù)等有關(guān)身份關(guān)系的協(xié)議，適用其他法律的規(guī)定.ContractsContracts are

23、at the center of international business. They govern(支配）the relationships between parties by setting forth the rights and duties of each party. They may also include provisions(準(zhǔn)備）to resolve(解決)disputes(爭(zhēng)議)that may arise in performing the contract.Contracts When writing contracts, many lawyers simpl

24、e take an agreement from an earlier deal and update it for the new deal. This will work when the earlier deal was substantially(大體上) similar to the new deal, but often the earlier contracts may include terms that are irrelevant(無關(guān)系的) to the new deal. When the lawyer does not really understand those

25、new terms, the lawyer may be afraid to delete them. But leaving irrelevant terms in a contract can also create problems if there is a dispute（爭(zhēng)論） later about performance of the contract.Contract is a course（課程） that law students usually take in the first year of law school in the Unites States. Many

26、 of the words and concepts（觀念） learned in that course appear in later school course involving (包括) commercial (商業(yè)的) sales, corporate(公司) law, international business transactions (交易), securities law, taxation (稅) of particular transactions, business franchise (特權(quán)) law, and licensing. The law of cont

27、racts is taught from common law concepts of contract law, but concepts from the Uniform Commercial Code often appear in standard courses. Unfortunately, concepts from the Convention on the International Sales of Goods are often taught only in “specialty” courses such as “International Business Trans

28、actions.” Many U.S. lawyer never learn that there is an international treaty (條約) that governs (影響) transactions made with parties from other signatory (簽約的) countries.ContractsAlthough many of the principles of contract law will be familiar to lawyers trained in civil law countries, some principlessuch as “consideration”may cause some difficulty becau