國際建筑合同的文化思考

1、Cultural Considerations in International Construction Contracts國際建筑合同的文化思考Edwin H. W. Chan1 and Raymond Y. C. Tse2埃德溫·W·擴散和雷蒙德Y.C. tse2Abstract: International construction projects involve multinational participants from different political, legal, economic, and cultural backgrounds. As on

2、e of the major issues affecting the management of international construction projects, culture deserves wide research.This paper aims to establish a valid groundwork for further research on the impact of cultural issues on contractual arrangements; conictcausation, and the selection of dispute resol

3、ution mechanisms for international construction projects. The paper reviews the characteristics of international construction activities and discusses the cultural context. It sets the research background for disseminating the ndings of two surveys, carried out in Hong Kong and in London and Sydney.

4、 The study identies the important features expected for the contract of international construction projects and ascertains their signicance to further in-depth research.摘要：國際工程項目涉及不同的政治，法律，經(jīng)濟和跨國的參與者，文化背景。作為一個影響國際工程項目管理的主要問題，值得廣泛的文化研究。本文的目的是在文化問題上的契約安排的影響的進一步研究奠定基礎(chǔ)和有效因果關(guān)系，并對國際工程項目的爭端解決機制的選擇。本文綜述的特點國際

5、建筑活動，探討文化語境。它傳播的結(jié)果集的研究背景兩個調(diào)查，在香港、倫敦和悉尼進行了。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)的重要特征，預計合同國際工程項目并確定其意義合同研究的進一步深入。DOI: 10.1061/( ASCE) 0733-9364 (2003) 129:4 (375)CE Database subject headings: Contracts; Dispute resolution; Hong Kong; International factors; Construction industry.該數(shù)據(jù)庫的主題標題：合同；糾紛解決；香港；國際因素；建筑業(yè)Introduction引言Within the g

6、eneral trend of globalization, worldwide economic cooperation and technology transfer are common practice. Inter-national construction projects are just one of the activities that involve multinational participants from different political, legal,economic, and cultural backgrounds. According to Lath

7、am 1994 , project procurement and construction disputes are two of the major concerns in the construction industry. Conict and disputes are causing major damage to the industry.在經(jīng)濟全球化的大趨勢下，世界經(jīng)濟合作和技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)移是常見的做法。國際建設項目只是其中的一個活動它涉及不同政治法律，經(jīng)濟，文化背景的跨國參與者，根據(jù)Latham1994觀點，項目采購和施工糾紛是兩個在建筑行業(yè)關(guān)注的主要問題。沖突和罷工都將引起業(yè)內(nèi)的重大

8、損害。The work of researchers such as Turin 1972 , Aniekwu and Okpala 1988 , and Ofori 1984, 1991 show that similar problems are noted worldwide and that the less-developed or developing countries are the worst hit by the problems. Research has been conducted to prevent and resolve construction dispute

9、s in specic countries Vorster 1993; Diekmann and Girard 1995; Cheung 1998; Kumaraswamy and Yogeswaran 1998 . More generally, Simon 1987 argues that to understand real decision making, utility maximization is neither a necessary nor a sufcient condition for the conclusion reached. The action comes fr

10、om empirical assumptions, including assumptions about how people view their world.這項工作的研究者如Turin1972，aniekwu和Okpala1988，和Ofori1984 .1991都表明，類似的問題被指出在世界范圍內(nèi)，并指出在欠發(fā)達和發(fā)展中國家的問題是最嚴重的。已經(jīng)有研究進行預防和解決施工爭議在特殊的國家，如沃斯特1993迪克曼和吉拉德1995；1998約蓋斯瓦蘭庫馬拉斯瓦米和1998香港。更主要的是，西蒙1987認為了解真正的決策判斷的效用最大化，既不是必要的也不是充分的為達成結(jié)論的條件。行動來自于經(jīng)

11、驗假設，包括假設人們?nèi)绾尾榭此麄兊氖澜?。Although concerns about cultural issues seem to be discussed widely in construction, their formal analysis is infrequent. Research is necessary to minimize the problems in the global context. This paper disseminates the research ndings of two sets of questionnaires carried out by

12、 the rst writer as part of an ongoing research study, one conducted in Hong Kong during 1998, and the other in London and Sydney during 1999.雖然關(guān)于文化問題的關(guān)注似乎被廣泛的討論應用于建筑，其正式的分析是罕見。這樣的研究以減少全球背景下的問題是必要的。本文發(fā)布研究結(jié)論對于兩組問卷調(diào)查的。由第一作家作為正在進行的部分研究性學習進行的，一個在香港進行在1998，和另一個在倫敦和悉尼在1999。The aim of this paper is to estab

13、lish a valid foundation for further research on the impact of cultural issues on contractual arrangements, conict causation, and selection of dispute resolution mechanisms for international construction projects. Following this introduction, the second section reviews the characteristics of internat

14、ional construction activities and discusses the cultural contextual factors that contribute to conict and difculties in the management of the international construction projects.The third section introduces the research methodology and data collection of the two surveys, the fourth section explains

15、the data analysis, and the fth presents the key observations of the research results and makes recommendations for further study in this area. The paper ends with a general conclusion.本文的目的是建立一個有效的基礎(chǔ)為了在文化合作安排問題上的影響的進一步研究，控制因果關(guān)系，以及 國際工程項目機制 糾紛解決的選擇。遵循 這個介紹，第二部分回顧國際建筑活動的特征和討論有助于控制 文化語境的

16、因素，和在國際工程項目管理的不同。第三部分介紹了本文的研究方法和這兩個調(diào)查收集的數(shù)據(jù)，第四部分解釋了數(shù)據(jù)分析，并提出了第五部分關(guān)鍵的觀察在搜索結(jié)果中并對進一步研究 這個地區(qū) 的建議。本文的最后是一個一般性的結(jié)論。1、Associate Professor, Dept. of Building and Real Estate, The HongKong Polytechnic Univ., Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR.E-mail: .hk1、副教授，建筑及房地產(chǎn)系，香港香港理工大學，紅磡，九龍，香港特區(qū)。電子郵件

17、：.hk2、Professor, International City University of America, Asian House, 1 Hennessy Rd., Hong Kong SAR. E-mail: rtseicua.us2、教授，國際大學城的美國，亞洲的房子，1軒尼詩道，香港。電子郵件：rtseicua.usNote. Discussion open until January 1, 2004. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. To extend

18、 the closing date by one month, a written request must be led with the ASCE Managing Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on February 6, 2001; approved on July 1, 2002. This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Manage-ment, V

19、ol. 129, No. 4, August 1, 2003. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2003/4-375381/$18.00.注意討論開放直到一月 1號，2004年。獨立的討論必須 提交個人文件。延長截止日期一個月，書面請求必須提交與中國土木工程學會執(zhí)行主編。這個課題的底稿提交被評論，并且可能在6日出版，2001；被批準在7月1號，2002年。這文件是雜志建筑工程與管理的一部分。第129號4，8月1，2003年 ASCE ，ISSN 0733 - 9364 /2003年4 

20、;- 6 375381 /美元18.00International Construction ActivitiesCharacteristics and Problems 國際建筑活動的特點和存在的問題International construction projects are those in which the contractor, the lead consultant, or the employer is not of the same domicile,and at least one of them is working outside his

21、or her country of origin （Stebblings 1998）. The construction industry is complex and multidimensional, and to improve this situation, the major construction projects in developing countries are often carried out in joint ventures with construction companies from developed countries. International co

22、llaboration can be of particular benet to less-developed and developing areas. Transglobal economic developments offer an opportunity to develop products using the most up-to-date expertise and knowledge in a cost-effective manner （Clark and Ip 1999）. International projects are normally fast paced b

23、ut require a longer time span, and more parties are involved. Collaboration between the concerned parties requires clear project denition, and each set of objectives under the denition may be subject to changes as the project evolves.國際建筑項目是指那些承包商，首席顧問，或雇主不在相同的住所，他們中至少一人在他或她的國家起源的工作（stebblings 1998）

24、。建筑業(yè)是復雜的多維體，并為了改善這一狀況，主要在發(fā)展中國家的建設項目往往是進行來自發(fā)達國家的建筑合資企業(yè)。國際合作特別有益于欠發(fā)達和發(fā)展中地區(qū)。環(huán)球經(jīng)濟的發(fā)展提供了一個機會，去開發(fā)的產(chǎn)品使用在一個具有成本效益的方式下，用最新的技術(shù)和知識（克拉克和IP 1999）。國際項目通常快節(jié)奏，但需要較長的時間跨度，和涉及多人。有關(guān)各方之間的合作需要清晰的項目定義，并且在定義下每一組的目標都可能會隨著項目的發(fā)展變化。Parties to international projects are also concerned with the clarity of local laws and the int

25、erpretation of those contracts governed by local laws. Transglobal collaboration calls for greater cultural understanding and sensitivity in terms of personnel management by the concerned parties. Human problems are involved,such as language, communication, and the understanding of cultural differen

26、ces. It is generally acknowledged that the contextual environment of a country or region also inuences the construction industry of each jurisdiction. Based on previous work by other researchers, Sheath, Jaggar, and Hibberd （1994） compiled a set of environmental inuences associated with construction

27、 and a list of variables under each of the inuence factors. The variables have been used to study the impact of these contextual factors on the choice of a project procurement system. Such a contextual research approach can be adopted and elaborated for studying the effect of culture on disputes in

28、international construction projects.國際項目各方關(guān)注的是地方法規(guī)的透明度和 這些合同遵守當?shù)胤傻慕忉?。環(huán)球國際合作的呼吁更大的文化理解和靈敏度在人事管理方面通過當事人。人類所涉及的問題也被包括，如語言，通信，和文化差異的理解。眾所周知，一個國家或地區(qū)的周邊環(huán)境也在影響每個司法管轄區(qū)的建筑業(yè)?；谇叭说南嚓P(guān)研究，Sheath，Jagga，和Hibberd（1994）編制的一套在環(huán)境影響下的建筑關(guān)聯(lián)文件和一系列在相關(guān)環(huán)境下影響因素的變量列表。變量被用來研究這些因素對項目采購制度選擇的影響。這樣的情境研究的方法可以采用，并闡述了研究文化對國際建設工程糾紛的影響

29、。Cultural Context文化語境The term culture has wide connotations in anthropology and ethnography. Its meaning is not clearly defined, and even anthropologists do not agree on one clear and precise definition. Definitions differ greatly and are dependent on the theoretical perspectives of those who offer

30、them. In the management literature, Hofstede (1984)defines culture as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from others. Culture, in this sense, includes systems of values and values are the building blocks of culture. In the context of constructio

31、n management education regarding culture, loose more (1999)states that it is now accepted that a culture of a society is its shared values, understandings, assumptions and goals learned from earlier generations. It results in common attitudes, codes of conduct and expectations that guide behavior. 術(shù)

32、語文化在人類學和人種學有廣泛的內(nèi)涵。其含義是不明確的，甚至是人類學家不在一個明確和準確的定義達成一致。定義有很大的不同，依賴于那些為他們提供的理論視角。在管理文獻中，霍夫斯泰德1984年將文化定義為“區(qū)別不同的人類群體的其他成員心靈的集體編程s文化，在這個意義上，包括價值體系和是文化的基石的價值觀?！痹?999年工程管理教育更寬松的文化語境下指出：“從更早的一代學會的價值觀，理解，假設和目標是我們現(xiàn)在所接受的一種社會文化。它導致的結(jié)果是用共同的態(tài)度，行為規(guī)范和期望來指導行為。”Tso (1999),an anthropologist and designer, suggested some p

33、arameters that could help to delineate the playing fields for the concept of culture, but warned that the definition will shift within the boundaries of the parameters. She suggested that one will find the essence of the term culture within the following fields: culture describes the social system c

34、reated by a group of people; it starts from the moment that a few people get together regularly and begin to establish norms and rules through which they will interact and communicate with each other and maintain order; it is about patterns of meaning; it is about shared beliefs, values, perspective

35、s, and worldviews; it is about shared behavior, practices, rules, and rituals; it is not limited to groupings by race or ethnicity, but can describe a sub-culture within a society designers, for instance; it is often associated with language and communication; it is viewed as a mental or cognitive c

36、onstruct, created in the minds of people; it is learned; it can be found in materials: objects, artefacts, clothing, artwork, and so forth; and it can emanate from social institutions and structures, such as governments, economies, and legal systems, as well as geographic and environmental factors.曹

37、，人類學家和設計師，1999年提出了一些參數(shù)，可以幫助劃定為文化理念的領(lǐng)域，但警告說，該定義將在參數(shù)的范圍內(nèi)移動。她建議，將在以下領(lǐng)域找到長期的文化本質(zhì)：“文化描述了一群人創(chuàng)造的社會制度，從那一刻起，一些人經(jīng)常聚在一起，開始建立規(guī)范和規(guī)則，通過那些他們可以相互影響和相互溝通和維持秩序；這是關(guān)于模式的意義；這是共同的信念，價值觀和世界觀這是關(guān)于共享行為，實踐，規(guī)則，和儀式；它不受種族或民族群體的限制；但可以描述在一個社會的設計師下的亞文化，例如；它往往是與語言和交流相關(guān)的；它被視為一種心理或認知結(jié)構(gòu)，在人們的頭腦中創(chuàng)造；據(jù)了解；它可以發(fā)現(xiàn)在材料：對象，工藝品，服裝，工藝品，等等，它可以來自社會制

38、度和社會結(jié)構(gòu)，如政府，經(jīng)濟，法律制度，以及地理和環(huán)境因素?！盩oday, anthropologists take a relative position toward culture, believing that no one culture is better or worse than another. In this paper, we discuss problems related to culture as the word is understood by every man in the street without elaboration. It is a very ge

39、neral concept within the fields described by Tso (1999). 今天，人類學家對文化的相對位置，相信沒有一個文化比其他文化“更美好”或“'更糟糕”。 在本文中，我們討論相關(guān)的文化這個詞是在街上沒有一個男人可以闡述清楚的問題。這是在描述TSO的領(lǐng)域（1999）一個很籠統(tǒng)的概念。In international construction projects, any party involved must be cross-culturally competent. To be competent, Trompenaars and Willi

40、ams (1999) claim that the transcultural manager should be aware of managing in seven dimensions: universalism versus particularism, individualism versus communitarism, specific versus diffuse, neutrality versus affectivity, inner directed versus outer directed, achieved versus ascribed status, and s

41、equential versus synchronic time. These complex psychological and behavioral dimensions deserve in-depth study in the context of the international construction industry. Construction professionals involved with international projects should at least be able to recognize the expectations and behavior

42、 of others. Cultural issues are expected to contribute to conflicts among parties to an international project and increase difficulties in the management of the project (Fellow and Hancock 1994).Without understanding there can be no friendship. If one wishes to understand a people one must identify

43、oneself with them. One must study their language, customs and culture . and they will be ones friends (Broster1976).在國際工程項目中，當事人必須跨文化能力。為了能夠勝任，Trompenaars和Williams（ 1999）聲稱，跨文化管理者應該意識到管理的七個維度：普遍性與特殊主義，普遍主義與特殊主義，個人主義與社群主義，特異性和彌漫性，中立性和情感性，內(nèi)部和外部的指示，實現(xiàn)與賦予的地位，和順序與同步時間。在國際建筑業(yè)的背景上這些復雜的心理和行為方面值得深入研究。建筑專業(yè)人員參

44、與國際項目，至少應該能夠認識到別人的期望和行為。文化問題將有助于引起一個國際項目各方之間的沖突，并在項目管理方面增加了困難。（研究員和漢考克1994）?！皼]有理解就沒有友誼。如果你希望了解一個人必須將自己與他們一樣看待。你必須學習他們的語言，習俗和文化將他們當做自己的朋友”（布羅斯特1976）。Dispute Resolution Processes爭議解決程序With dispute resolution processes becoming international and unrestricted by frontier, legal system, or national cultu

45、re, cultural unity is disrupted. International arbitration is said to be a true clash of legal cultures (Shilston and Hughes 1997; Cremades 1998). To interact with such a legal culture, traditional arbitration practices have to be modified to incorporate a proactive, flexible, and amicable (nonadver

46、sarial) process. In awareness of this, practitioners and commentators have been proposing various schemes and innovative practices (Cremades 1998; Uff 1998; Shilston and Hughes 1997). New legislation such as the Arbitration Act in the U.K. and the Arbitration Ordinance in Hong Kong have been promulg

47、ated to reflect this need. The practice of combined mediation and arbitration adopted in many countries such as China has aroused much interest （Chan 1997）. Such a line of thinking leads to fusion of amicable and judicialized alternative dispute resolution （ADR）.隨著爭議解決程序成為國際化和不受邊境限制，法律制度，或民族文化，文化團結(jié)都

48、被打亂了。國際仲裁據(jù)說是法律文化的一個'真正的沖突'' （Shilston and Hughes 1997; Cremades 1998）。與這樣的法律文化互動，傳統(tǒng)的仲裁實踐需要進行修改，以納入積極主動，靈活，友好的氣氛下的過程。在意識到這一點，從業(yè)者和評論家已提出多種方案和創(chuàng)新實踐（Cremades 1998; Uff 1998; Shilston and Hughes 1997。新的立法，如英國仲裁法及仲裁條例在香港已公布，以反映這方面的需求。聯(lián)合調(diào)解和仲裁的做法在例如中國的許多國家被采納引起了人們很大的興趣（陳1997）。這樣的思路導致融合的友好和“司法化”替代

49、性糾紛解決機制（美國預托證券）The good that a dispute resolution mechanism will do depends on the person using it. The balancing act is dependent upon the neutral party appointed for the task. In the process of resolving disputes on an international construction project, the disputing parties and the neutral party

50、 are expected to participate in shedding home-grown habits and prejudices （Shilston and Hughes 1997）. Singh（1998） claims that in the context of large international projects where there are several parties of different nationalities involved, ADR offers the immediate attraction of avoiding any diffic

51、ulties of conflict of laws or jurisdictional problems which may arise. It also allows the parties to reach agreement as to how their disputes should be resolved which can take account of national and cultural differences.一種糾紛解決機制的好處將取決于使用它的人。該平衡的行為取決于指定任務的中立的一方。在解決國際建設工程糾紛的過程中，爭端各方和中立的一方，預計參加'&#

52、39;脫落本土的習慣和偏見''（Shilston和1997年休斯）。辛格（1998）聲稱，“在那里有涉及不同國籍的幾方大型國際項目的背景下，美國預托證券提供避免法律或可能出現(xiàn)的管轄權(quán)沖突問題的任何困難的直接吸引力。它還允許各方達成協(xié)議如何解決爭端應以民族文化差異的帳戶。”In construction disputes, the trend is toward conflict management, with the emphasis on designing a dispute prevention system to suit each project. This aim

53、s to focus on conflict in the very early stage of a project and to design the most appropriate ADR mechanism to be incorporated into the construction contract (Vorster 1993). In addition to the traditionally adapted arbitration, many new ADR mechanisms, such as mediation, an executive tribunal, adju

54、dication, a dispute resolution advisor, and a dispute review board, have been developed. In the worldwide comparative study complied by Fennet al. (1998), the preferred choice of ADR mechanisms and their practice in each country were quite varied. For most large international construction projects,

55、one of the ADR mechanisms, or a combination of the mechanisms in the form of multitier ADR mechanism, is incorporated into the construction contracts. This situation deserves vigorous investigation to decipher the relationship between cultural issues and choice of dispute resolution mechanisms for i

56、nternational construction projects. 在建筑糾紛，該趨勢是沖突管理，重點放在設計適應每個項目的糾紛防范體系，此舉旨在把重點放在項目的早期階段的沖突上，并設計出最合適的能納入施工合同的美國預托證券機制（沃斯特1993）。除了傳統(tǒng)的適應仲裁，許多新的ADR機制，如調(diào)解，執(zhí)行庭，審判，調(diào)解糾紛顧問，以及爭端審查委員會，已經(jīng)開發(fā)出來。在全世界范圍內(nèi)比較研究的fennet Al遵守。（ 1998）的美國預托證券機制的首選，和他們在每個國家的做法是相當不同的。對于大多數(shù)大型國際工程項目，其中的ADR機制，或機制的組合的多層ADR機制的形成，是納入施工合同。這一情

57、況值得大力研究來破譯的國際建設項目文化問題和選擇的糾紛解決機制之間的關(guān)系。Research Methodology研究方法 This study inquires into the extent of major differences between Eastern an Western cultures in the perception of contractual arrangements and of resolving disputes. The study focuses on international projects involving parties from the U

58、.K. and Hong Kong,which have significant differences and similarities that are appropriate for this study. As the legal systems and construction industry institutional frameworks of both countries have the same origins, some of the side issues, such as differences in legal system,business language,

59、and structure of the construction industry, are eliminated from the scenario.Nevertheless, the organizational culture in the construction industries of the two countries is different, and Hong Kong is unique in terms of project management and government control of construction work Walker and Row-linson 1990;Chan and Chan 1999.本研究探討在合同安排和解決糾紛的看法上東西方文化之間的主要差異程度。本研究重點是那些適合這項研究的有重大的差異和相似之處的英國和香港政黨國際項目。作為法律制度建設的國家產(chǎn)業(yè)制度框架有著相同的起源，一些枝節(jié)問題，如法律制度的差異，商業(yè)語言和建筑結(jié)構(gòu)行業(yè)，從方案中被淘汰。然而，在這兩個國家的建筑業(yè)組織文化是不同的，香港是獨特的項目管理和政府