河北師范大學(xué)考研必備語言學(xué)

1、 師大語言學(xué)考研必備 英語語言學(xué)概論一、課程說明:   語言學(xué)概論課程是英語專業(yè)本科階段的一門必修課。   語言學(xué)概論研究始于20世紀初，其目的是揭示人類深層結(jié)構(gòu)，對語言和語言交際作出客觀、科學(xué)描述?，F(xiàn)已形成了語音學(xué)、音系學(xué)、形態(tài)學(xué)、句法學(xué)、語義學(xué)、語用學(xué)等一系分支學(xué)科。語言學(xué)研究社會學(xué)等人文學(xué)科的結(jié)合逐步形成了社會語言學(xué)這樣的交叉學(xué)科。對于主修語言學(xué)的學(xué)生來說，了解語言學(xué)的知識和語言理論是完全必要和有益的。   本課程的對象是英語專業(yè)高年級學(xué)生，在本科階段第學(xué)期和第學(xué)期開設(shè)。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章為必修，其余章節(jié)為

2、選修。二、教學(xué)目的及要求:本課程的具體要求是：比較全面，系統(tǒng)地了解語言學(xué)概論這一領(lǐng)域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影響的語言理論和原則，從而加深對人類語言這一人類社會普遍現(xiàn)象的理性認識，并具備一定的運用語言學(xué)理論解釋語言現(xiàn)象、解決具體語言問題的能力。  本課程是一門知識性比較強的課程。在教學(xué)過程中，應(yīng)重點講授主要理論、原則、和研究方法，使學(xué)生著重掌握基本概念和基本理論，在理解消化的基礎(chǔ)上記憶。   本課程的對象是英語專業(yè)學(xué)生，在講解過程中原則上采用英語范例，但不排除一些有助于學(xué)習(xí)者理解的、針對性強的漢語例子。應(yīng)鼓勵學(xué)生結(jié)合自己的語言實踐提供更多的例子來解釋相關(guān)理

3、論，以達到理論和實踐相結(jié)合的目的。 三、教學(xué)重點與難點:  本課程的教學(xué)重點是語言學(xué)的基本知識和基本理論，語音學(xué)、詞匯學(xué)、句法學(xué)、語義學(xué)和語用學(xué)這些語言學(xué)的核心內(nèi)容。本課程的教學(xué)難點是音韻學(xué)理論、句法結(jié)構(gòu)和各個語言學(xué)流派的理論觀點及其局限性。四、與其它課程的關(guān)系:  本課程是一門主干性課程。與其相關(guān)的課程，如語法學(xué)、詞匯學(xué)和語體學(xué)等都是語言學(xué)的分支，屬于選修課程。五、學(xué)時與學(xué)分:    學(xué)時：學(xué)時學(xué)分：學(xué)分 六、教學(xué)內(nèi)容：第一章      緒論本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1 

4、 語言學(xué)習(xí)的意義。2  語言的定義。3  語言的定義特征。4  語言的起源。5  語言的功能。6  語言學(xué)的定義。7  語言學(xué)的核心內(nèi)容。8  宏觀語言學(xué)的定義及分支。9  語言學(xué)研究中的重要概念區(qū)分。本章教學(xué)目的和要求:本章是全書的緒論。學(xué)習(xí)的目的是認識語言學(xué)的性質(zhì)，以及人類語言的本質(zhì)和特點。要求學(xué)生認知、理解語言學(xué)的的研究對象，語言學(xué)的各個分支，明晰語言學(xué)研究中幾對基本概念的區(qū)別。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1.       語言定義和區(qū)別性特征。2.

5、0;      語言的功能。3.       幾對重要概念的區(qū)分。4.       語言的區(qū)別性特征。5.       幾對重要概念的區(qū)分。 第二章      語言聲音本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1  發(fā)聲與感知。2  發(fā)音器官。3  音標(biāo)。4  元音及輔音。5  寬式

6、音標(biāo)窄 式音標(biāo)。6  音位理論。7  音韻的過程。8  區(qū)別性特征。9  音節(jié)和重讀的概念及功能作用。本章主要教學(xué)目的及要求:本章的中心是語音，要求對各種發(fā)音器官有所了解。對英語的元音、輔音的描述，分清寬式音標(biāo)和窄式音標(biāo)，以及音韻學(xué)的一些基本概念和基本規(guī)律。二  本章教學(xué)重點及難點: 本章的教學(xué)重點是語音學(xué)的概念及分類，發(fā)音器官，元音及輔音的定義和分類方法，寬式音標(biāo)和窄式音標(biāo)，音位理論， 區(qū)別性特征，重讀的概念及功能。 第三章      詞  匯一  本章

7、主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1  單詞的概念。2  構(gòu)詞法。1）  詞素和形態(tài)學(xué)。2）  詞素類型。3）  曲折變化和單詞構(gòu)成。4）  音韻學(xué)和形態(tài)學(xué)的對照。3  詞匯變遷。二  本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章要求了解語素這個概念；掌握英語常見的構(gòu)詞法；了解詞匯的歷史變遷。三  本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1  詞素的概念和詞素的類型、曲折變化、詞匯的變遷。2  詞素的概念、詞素變體、詞語的三層含義和音韻學(xué)與形態(tài)學(xué)的對照。第四章      句法學(xué)本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:

8、1  傳統(tǒng)語法  包括數(shù)、格等語法范疇。2  結(jié)構(gòu)主義語法。3  生成語法  （ 可結(jié)合附錄中有關(guān)生成語法的內(nèi)容）。4  功能語法。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章從傳統(tǒng)語法、結(jié)構(gòu)主義語法、生成語法和功能主義語法四個角度闡述了句法學(xué)的主要內(nèi)容。要求學(xué)生了解這四種方法的具體內(nèi)容以及一些重要的概念，并深刻認識到語言的語法體系是一套高度抽象自律性規(guī)則系統(tǒng)、句子的線性與層次性、深層結(jié)構(gòu)與表層結(jié)構(gòu)等關(guān)系。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:傳統(tǒng)語法中的數(shù)、格、性時態(tài)和語態(tài)、結(jié)構(gòu)語法中的直接成分分析法和向心結(jié)構(gòu)、離心結(jié)構(gòu)、生成語法中的深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu)。 第五

9、章      意  義本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1  意義的意義。2  所指理論。3  意義關(guān)系。4  成分分析。5  句子意義。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章對意義進行研究。要求學(xué)生對幾種主要的對意義研究的途徑有所了解。明析詞匯與詞匯之間和句子與句子之間的關(guān)系，了解近代語言學(xué)中對詞義研究的重要方法。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:本章的教學(xué)重點是：所指理論、意義關(guān)系和成分分析。本章的教學(xué)難點是：所指理論和成分分析。句子意義這一部分內(nèi)容可用于補充閱讀材料。 第七章  語言、文化、社會本章主要

10、教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1.     語言與文化的關(guān)系。1)     語言和文化如何關(guān)聯(lián)。2)     薩皮爾-沃夫假說。3)     個案研究。4)     文化在語言學(xué)研究中的地位。5)     文化在語言課堂教學(xué)中的作用。6.       語言與社會的關(guān)系和社會語言學(xué)。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章重點教授語言和

11、文化、社會的關(guān)系，使學(xué)生對語言現(xiàn)象以及附帶的社會、文化內(nèi)涵產(chǎn)生興趣，并了解一些相關(guān)的理論。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1.       薩皮爾-沃夫假說、文化在語言課堂教學(xué)中的作用、社會語言學(xué)的定義和研究范圍、社會語言學(xué)的應(yīng)用。2.       薩皮爾-沃夫假說、文化在語言課堂中的作用及社會語言學(xué)的概念。                

12、 第八章  語言使用    本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1.       言語行為理論。2.       會話含義理論。3.       其他理論。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:    本章重點講授語用學(xué)的概念和著名的語用學(xué)理論、原則和研究成果。要求學(xué)生對這些理論、原則有初步的了解，并能用來解釋一些生活中語言現(xiàn)象。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1. 

13、0;     諺語行為理論、言內(nèi)行為、言外行為、言后行為、合作原則、會話含義。2.       言語行為理論、違反合作原則所產(chǎn)生的會話含義。本章的第三部分作為補充材料供學(xué)生課外閱讀。     第十一章  語言學(xué)與語言教學(xué)     本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:        1.語言學(xué)和外語教學(xué)的關(guān)系。2不同的觀點、理論對外語教學(xué)的影響。3

14、大綱的制訂。4.語言學(xué)習(xí)。5.錯誤分析。6.測試。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章的中心內(nèi)容是語言學(xué)和外語教學(xué)的關(guān)系，介紹了影響外語教學(xué)的幾種語言學(xué)理論和實踐教學(xué)活動中常見的問題及對應(yīng)策略，要求學(xué)生了解基本理論、掌握分析、測試的基本方法。建議師范類本科學(xué)生此章作為必修。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1.       各種語言學(xué)理論在語言教學(xué)中的指導(dǎo)作用、交際能力理論、教學(xué)大綱的制定、語言學(xué)習(xí)中的輸入和中介語的產(chǎn)生、錯誤分析的步驟和方法、兩種不同的測試方法、測試類型和要求、測試內(nèi)容和形式。2.     &

15、#160; 結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)在語言教學(xué)中的作用、轉(zhuǎn)換生成語言學(xué)的理論觀點、功能語言學(xué)在語言教學(xué)中的應(yīng)用。 Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Disign features:Definition: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that dist

16、inguish it from any animal system of communication2.1 Arbitrariness Definition: There is no logical connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrarya. onomatopoetic words(rumble, bang, crash)compound words (photocopy)b. at t

17、he syntactic level, there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happening. For example, He came in and sat down. He sat down and came in. He sat down after he came in.c. convention: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convent

18、ion2.2 Duality Definition: Duality means the properties of having the levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization The term ”human” is meant to specify that language is hum

19、an-specific Discuss the saying “Language is human-specific”. In other words, what makes language different from animals system of communication .For example, the bears dancing. Language is a system , which consists of 2 sets of structures. At the lower or basic level there is a structure of sounds,

20、which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a larger number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. Sounds words phrases sentences The lowest level consists of dozens of bits of meaningless sounds which occur in ch

21、umps that we call syllables. 2.3 Creativity (Productivity) Definition: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. The three-legged white monkey slept on the bed of the king of France. Gibbon calls- a limited repertoire Bee dancing-

22、 only to indicate food sources 2.4 Displacement Definition: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communicat

23、ion. Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places 2.5 Cultural Transmission Definition: Language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. The details of the linguistic s

24、ystem must be learned by each speaker. 2.6 Interchangeability Definition: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.3. Functions of Language1)Informative function This function is the major role of language. “Language serves for the expression of

25、 context: that is, of the speakers experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness”(Halliday)2)Interpersonal function This is the social use of language Through language people establish and maintain their status in a society. “Language serves to establish and mainta

26、in social rules, which include the communication roles created by language itself”(Halliday) The interpersonal function of language is the function of expressing identity. 3)Performative function(What do we do when using language) Language is used to do things This performative function of language

27、is to change the social status of persons. For example, in marriage ceremony, the sentencing of criminals, the naming of a ship 4)Emotive function Language is used to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. For example: ejaculations such as ”Good heavens”; “my God”; ”Im ext

28、remely sorry about it” It is used to change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It can be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others 5)Phatic communion It refers to the social interaction of language. When language is used to

29、 establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas, it fulfills the phatic function. For example: farewells, comments on the weather, greetings Malinowski(馬林諾夫斯基)the social interaction of language. It is to maintain a comfortable relationship between

30、people without involving any factual content. Eg. Ritual exchanges about health and weather 6）Recreational function The use of language is for the sheer joy of using it. Eg Verbal dueling Poetry writing1. Linguistics§ 1.1 Definition§ 1.2 Major branches of linguistics§ 1.3 Macrolinguis

31、tics§ 1.4 Important distinctions in linguistics§ 1.1 Definition§ Linguistics is the scientific study of language.§ It tries to answer the following questions:§ What is language?§ How does language work?§ Explanation:§ “Scientific” means that it is based on the

32、 systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.§ “Study” means investigation.§ “Language” means languages in general, that is, linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general. § 1.2 Major br

33、anches of linguistics§ 1.2.1 Phonetics§ Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produdced, transmitted, and perceived. It includes three parts: § Articulatory phonetics§ Acoustic phonetics§ Auditory phonetics§ 1.2.2 Phonology§ Phonology is the study of the sound pa

34、tterns and sound systems of languages. § Phoneme is the departing point of the phonological study. It is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. For example,pin, bin, tin, din - /p, b, t, d/ are phonemes which can distinguish meanings of these words.§

35、 Then what is the relation between phonetics and phonology? Think about this question and we will discuss it in Chapter 2.§ 1.2.3 Morphology§ Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.§ Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in a l

36、anguage. § 1.2.4 Syntax§ Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways words are combined into sentences in a language.§ Words are organized into structures more than just word order, e.g.,§ A. The children watched the firework from the hill.§ B. The children watched t

37、he firework from the hill.§ 1.2.5 Semantics§ Semantics is the study of meaning.§ It studies the meanings of linguistic units without concerning the influence of the context of situation, i.e., it studies the de-contextualized meaning.§ 1.2.6 Pragmatics§ Pragmatics is the stu

38、dy of meaning in context. (Then what is the difference between semantics and pragmatics?)§ Pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured§ 1.3 Macrolinguistics an interdisciplinary nature§ It concerns wit

39、h the relation between language and other disciplines which are also preoccupied with language, for example, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, computational linguistics, neurolinguistics, applied linguistics, etc. § 1.4 Important distinctions in linguistics§

40、 1.4.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive§ Examples:§ 1. a) It is I.§ b) It is me.§ 2. a) Who did you speak to?§ b) Whom did you speak to?§ 3. a) I havent done anything.§ b) I havent done nothing§ Descriptive The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the lan

41、guage people actually use.§ Prescriptive the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.§ Descriptive explanations of the three examples:§ 1) The Latin rule is not

42、 universal. In English, “me” is informal and “I” is felt to be very formal.§ 2) “Whom” is used in formal speech and in writing, and “who” is more acceptable in informal speech.§ 3) Language dose not have to follow logical reasoning. Here two negatives in 3b) only make a more emphatic negat

43、ive. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical but because language changes and rejects this usage now.§ To sum up:§ Prescriptive: Do/Dont say X.§ Descriptive: People do/dont say X.§ If a descriptive grammar of a non-prestige variety of Engli

44、sh were written, it might show, for example, that speakers of this variety said:§ I seen im. for I saw him.§ im n me done it. for He and I did it.§ 1.4.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic§ Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (Course in General Linguistics, 1916): “SYNCHRONIC”, in which

45、languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time, and “DIACHRONIC”, in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time are treated historically (Robins, 1967: 200).§ Language exists in time and changes through time.§ The descrip

46、tion of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study (Shakespeares English)§ The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (a historical study the historical development of language over a period of time). Time 1Description of the sound syst

47、em of Early EnglishSynchronic study§ description of changes diachronic§ between the two systems studyTime 2Description of the sound system of Modern EnglishSynchronic study§ 1.4.3 Langue & Parole§ Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members

48、 of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole.§ Langue is not complete in any individual speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity§ In separating langue from parole we are at the same time separating § 1) what is social from

49、what is individual; and § 2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.§ Which one should linguists study? Langue or Parole?§ Langue 1) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by; 2) abstract, not the language people actually

50、use; 3) relatively stable, does not change frequently.§ Parole 1) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; 2) concrete, the naturally occurring language events; 3) varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.§ 1.4.4 Competence vs. performance&

51、#167; American linguist Noam Chomsky (Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, 1965)§ Competence the ideal users underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language§ Performance the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situation§ Chomsky points out that the task of a li

52、nguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.§ Chomskys distinction of competence and performance is related to the langue-parole distinction of Saussure, but there are some differences between them, what are they

53、?§ What is the difference between Saussure and Chomsky?§ Saussure a sociological view of language (Langue is a matter of social conventions.)§ Chomsky a psychological view (Competence is a property of the mind of each individual.)§ Which one should be studied?§ Langue or Par

54、ole? Competence or Performance?§ Arguments:§ There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Some of them are ethnic background, socioeconomic status, and regions of the country; some are the factors as physical state changes within t

55、he individual, intoxication, fatigue, distraction, and illness. So there have been some arguments on Chomskys thinking that§ “Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly”.§ Dell Hyme

56、s studies language from a socio-cultural viewpoint and proposed “communicative competence” speakers vary their performance not at random but in a regular way (the pragmatic ability of language use).Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Phonetics Phonology I. Phonetics 1.1 Definition Phonetics studies how speech s

57、ounds are produced, transmitted and perceived; it is concerned with the sounds that occur in the world s languages. 1.2 Three Areas of Phonetics 1. Articulatory phoneticsthe study of the production of speech sounds 2. Acoustic phoneticsthe study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in s

58、peech sounds 3. Auditory phoneticsthe study of the perception of speech sounds. 1.3 Speech organs (vocal organs) 1. speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. 2. They are contained in three areas: 1) the pharyngeal cavitythe throat 2) the oral cavitythe mou

59、th 3) the nasal cavitythe nose 3. The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in various ways. 1.31 The pharyngeal cavity 1. Air stream from the lungs windpipeglottis 2. Vocal cords are two tissues. When they are folded back, air passes freely and silently; when they held

60、together, air vibrates them at different speeds when forcing its passage through them; when they are totally closed, no air can pass through them and then release the air stream suddenly. 1.32 The oral cavity 1. The oral cavity contains the uvula, the soft palate(the velum),the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth, the lips, and the tongue. 2. In phonetics, the tongue is divided into five parts: the tip ,the blade, the front, the back and the root. 3. In phonology, the sounds made with these parts of the tongue are often referred t