醫(yī)學(xué)心理學(xué)資料：2theory

1、Chapter 2 Theory of medical psychologyHistory of Psychology“Psychology hasalongpastbut onlyashort history.”1879年 W.馮特在萊比錫建立了世界上第一個(gè)心理學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)室，心理學(xué)從此宣告脫離哲學(xué)而成為獨(dú)立的科學(xué)。The schools of psychologyStructuralism FunctionalismBehaviorismPsychoanalytic psychologyHumanistic psychologyCognitive psychologyPsychophysiolo

2、gical theory心理學(xué)發(fā)展簡況19世紀(jì)末20世紀(jì)初 意識(shí)（consciousness）、潛意識(shí)（unconsciousness）20世紀(jì)20至50年代 行為（behavior）20世紀(jì)60年代 心理（意識(shí)和潛意識(shí)）、行為Three-dimensional object Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalysis Unconscious theoryTheories of personalityLibido: Stages of psychosexual developmentAnxiety and Defense MechanismsDream interp

3、retation Conscious The contents of awareness those things that occupy the focus of ones current attention. Preconscious Information that is not conscious but is retrievable into conscious awareness. Unconscious A reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, memories, urges, and conflicts that are trul

4、y beyond awareness.Freuds personality theory Id The portion of personality that is governed by inborn instinctual drives, particularly those related to sex and aggression. pleasure principle Ego The portion of personality that induces people to act with reason and deliberation and helps them conform

5、 to the requirements of the external world. reality principle Superego The portion of personality that motivates people to act in an ideal fashion, in accordance with the moral customs defined by parents and culture. idealistic principlePersonality and behavior superego demandReality demand ego beha

6、vior id demandPsychosexual StagesLibido1.oral stage (0-1): mouth, feeding ,fixation 2.anal stage (2-3): anus, toilet training, fixation 3.phallic stage (4-5): genitals, Oedipus complex4.latency stage (6 to puberty):none5.genital stage (puberty on): genitals1. Oral stageThe first stage of psychosexua

7、l development occurring in the first year of life; in this stage, pleasure is derived primarily from sucking and placing things in the mouth. mouth feeding fixation2. Anal stageThe second stage of psychosexual development occurring in second year of life; pleasure is derived from the process of defe

8、cation. anus toilet training fixation 3. Phallic stage (4-5)The third stage of psychosexual development,lasting from about age 3 to age 5;pleasure is gained from self-stimulation of sexual organs. Genitals Oedipus complex4. Latency stage (6 to puberty) none; outside ,social concerns5. Genital stage

9、(puberty on) genitals; opposite sex Anxiety and Defense MechanismsWhen we are unsuccessful in resolving a conflict through normal constructive actions, we become anxious. Anxiety is considered both a symptom of conflict and a signal to use a defense mechanism. Defense mechanisms are psychological ma

10、neuvers by which we distort reality in ways that will help us avoid conflicts and reduce anxiety. Defense MechanismsRepressionDenialUndoing Regression Projection Displacement Repression: one way of dealing with anxiety-provoking conflicts or thoughts is to force them from conscious awareness. ( forg

11、otten material) Denial Denial involves the reinterpretation of the anxiety-provoking material to make it less threatening. (eg: exam)Projection Projection is the process whereby you attribute your own personality characteristics to other people. (eg, frightened, hostile )RegressionWhen faced with co

12、nflict, stress, and particularly frustration, you may use regression to return to an earlier stages of life in which you were more secure and successful. (eg, back home )Displacement There are two kinds of displacement , Objective displacement (when you express a feeling toward on individual that sh

13、ould be expressed toward someone else). and drive displacement (when you have one feeling or drive that cannot be expressed,so the energy from that feeling transferred to another feeling than can be expressed ) (eg, sexual feeling -aggression ).UndoingEngaging in behavior designed to symbolically ma

14、ke amends for or negate previous thoughts , feelings, or actions; expressing a wish and the denying it. eg, break a bowl in Chinese New YearRationalization Rationalization involves giving a good reason for some behavior that is not the real reason. In doing so, you can disguise actual but unacceptab

15、le motivation. sour grapes sweet lemonsCompensation If you feel threatened in some area, you may seek compensation by working extra hard to overcome to real or imagined weakness.Intellectualization To avoid threatening emotions, you might focus on the objective, nonemotional details of an otherwise

16、emotional situarion.Reaction formationWhen you desire something or want to do something, but because of a conflict you transform the desire or behavior into opposite. sublimation a socially useful course of action developed when more direct forms of gratification are blocked.Analysis of dreamsAnalys

17、is of dreams“Dreams are the disguised fulfilment of a repressed, infantile wish” “dreams are egoistic - its all me, me, me - we become the hero of our own private movie.” Dream analysis.In sleep, we are somewhat less resistant to our unconscious and we will allow a few things, in symbolic form, of c

18、ourse, to come to awareness. These wishes from the id provide the therapist and client with more clues. Many forms of therapy make use of the clients dreams, but Freudian interpretation is distinct in the tendency to find sexual meanings. How do you know it is a dream? Describe what happens in the d

19、ream. How do you think the events of the dream relate to the daily life of the dreamer? What is the meaning or symbolism of the dream-element water in the dream? Look at it. Imagine that, instead of the nurse, this is a dream dreamed by the little child. Dream workdream work CondensationDisplacement

20、Symbolism帶血的白裙子Psychoanalytic therapyThe goal of the psychotherapist is to help the patient explore their unconscious, find the conflicts between Id, Ego and Superego （They usually have begun during stem from early childhood ），come to grips with the demands of the Id, and create the highest level of

21、 Ego functioning as possible.Psychoanalytic therapy TechniquesFree AssociationsThe Analysis of Dreams The Analysis of resistanceThe Analysis of transference InterpretationDevelopment of psychologyStructuralismFunctionalismBehaviorismHumanistic psychologyCognitive psychologyPsychophysiological theory

22、Structuralism馮特是一位哲學(xué)家兼生理學(xué)家，他的心理學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)室主要研究感知覺心理過程，所用的主要是生理學(xué)的實(shí)驗(yàn)技術(shù)，所以他稱自己的這種研究為“生理心理學(xué)”，也稱為“實(shí)驗(yàn)心理學(xué)”。馮特認(rèn)為心理學(xué)是研究人的直接經(jīng)驗(yàn)或意識(shí)的科學(xué)，復(fù)雜的心理活動(dòng)是由簡單的單元構(gòu)成的。心理學(xué)的任務(wù)就是把心理活動(dòng)分解為一些心理元素。后人稱之為元素心理學(xué)或構(gòu)造心理學(xué)。 鐵欽納（美國）（Titchener,Edward Bradford）（1867-1927):心理學(xué)綱要、心理學(xué)入門、實(shí)驗(yàn)心理學(xué)、心理學(xué)教科書等Functionalism芝加哥機(jī)能主義 反對(duì)把意識(shí)分析為感覺、感情等元素，主張意識(shí)是一個(gè)連續(xù)的整體； 反對(duì)

23、把心理看作一種不起作用的副現(xiàn)象，強(qiáng)調(diào)心理的適應(yīng)功能; 反對(duì)把心理學(xué)只看作一門純科學(xué)，重視心理學(xué)的實(shí)際應(yīng)用；反對(duì)把心理學(xué)局限于正常人的一般心理規(guī)律，主張把心理學(xué)的研究范圍擴(kuò)大到動(dòng)物心理、兒童心理、教育心理、變態(tài)心理、差異心理等領(lǐng)域。 Behaviorism TheoryBehaviorismJohn B.Watson 約翰.華生 （18781958） Behaviorism馮特“心理學(xué)是研究意識(shí)的科學(xué)” 華生：心理學(xué)應(yīng)該研究可以被觀察和直接測量的行為，反對(duì)研究沒有科學(xué)根據(jù)的意識(shí)。他反對(duì)內(nèi)省的研究方法，主張以純實(shí)驗(yàn)的方法研究心理學(xué)。 華生1919年行為主義觀點(diǎn)的心理學(xué) 1925年行為主義 行為主義

24、觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為，心理學(xué)不應(yīng)該研究意識(shí)，只應(yīng)該研究行為。所謂行為就是有機(jī)體用以適應(yīng)環(huán)境變化的各種身體反應(yīng)的組合。這些反應(yīng)不外是肌肉收縮和腺體分泌，它們有的表現(xiàn)在身體外部，有的隱藏在身體內(nèi)部，強(qiáng)度有大有小。 華生認(rèn)為心理學(xué)研究行為的任務(wù)就在于查明刺激與反應(yīng)之間的規(guī)律性關(guān)系。這樣就能根據(jù)刺激推知反應(yīng)，根據(jù)反應(yīng)推知刺激，達(dá)到預(yù)測和控制行為的目的?？梢詠G開意識(shí)去考察 行為 。運(yùn)用更客觀的方法去研究行為。S-R “Give me a dozen health infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I wi

25、ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select, doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities,vocations, and race of his ancestors” (John B. Watson,1925)Bur

26、rbus Frederick Skinner 斯金納 （19041990） Albert Bandura 班杜拉 (1925-) Behaviorism SRNew behaviorism SORBasic styles of learning1. Classical conditioning2. Operant conditioning (Instrumental conditioning)3. Observational learning ( Social learning)Pavlovian 巴甫洛夫 ( 1849-1936)Classical conditioningA set of

27、procedures, developed by Pavlov, used to investigate how organisms learn about the signaling properties of events. Classical conditioning leads to the learning of relations between events- that occur outside of ones control.（UCS）（UCR）（CS）+（UCS） (UCR)（CS）（CR）Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning

28、A form of behaviorism based on the premise that reinforced behaviors tend to continue, while those that are punished or are not reinforced tend to gradually end. Observational Learning Observational Learning Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experiences of others. Also called social

29、learningBasic principles of learningreinforcement punishmentextinction generalization habituation shaping modeling ReinforcementReinforcement The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. Reinforcer primary reinforcers Primary reinforcers are n

30、atural; they are not learned. They usually satisfy basic biological needs, such as food, air, water, and shelter. secondary reinforcers Secondary reinforcers are those that have come to be associated with primary reinforcers. eg.money (conditioned reinforcers)schedules of reinforcement continuous re

31、inforcementIn continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs .partial reinforcementIn partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Reinforcement: Responses that are followed by “favorable” consequences (reinforcing stimuli) are mo

32、re likely to occur in the future Positive Negative Reinforcement ReinforcementPositive reinforcementPresentation of a rewarding or pleasant stimulus after a particular response to increase the likelihood that the response will recur. Negative reinforcementRemoval of an aversive stimulus after a part

33、icular response to increase the likelihood that the response will recur. Punishment: A stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. Responses that are followed by “unfavorable” consequences (punishing stimuli) are less likely to occur in the futur

34、e（positive reinforcement） R S+ R（negative reinforcement ） R S- R（extinction) R S+ R（punishment ） R S- RPunishment運(yùn)用懲罰的原則避免懲罰不足。如有可能，應(yīng)根據(jù)“罪情”論處。至少要求有一個(gè)不相容的逃避反應(yīng)。如有可能立即懲罰。 “回到犯罪現(xiàn)場”。避免在懲罰以后獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)。為受罰的反應(yīng)提供一個(gè)可接受的其他選擇。time-outExtinctionA decrease in the strength or frequency, or stopping, of a learned response

35、because of failure to continue paring the US and CS or withholding of reinforcement. Extinctionextinction burstAn extinction burst will often occur when the extinction procedure has just begun. This consists of a sudden and temporary increase in the responses frequency, followed by the eventual decl

36、ine and extinction of the behavior targeted for elimination spontaneous recoveryIn classical conditioning, spontaneous recovery, or resurgence in operant conditioning, is the reemergence of a conditioned response which has been previously extinguished. Spontaneous recoveries tend to yield somewhat m

37、uted responses in which extinction occurs more readily. Stimulus Generalizationthe transfer of a learned response to different but similar stimuli. Stimulus discriminationlearning to respond to only one stimulus and to inhibit the response to all other stimuli. Habituation habituation An event occur

38、s repeatedly, but in this case, the reaction of the animal wanes with repeated exposure. A behavioural alteration where an organism gets accustomed to a particular stimuli, and no longer produces a response to it. Shaping shaping The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and clo

39、ser approximations of the desired behavior. Modeling modelingModeling is a form of learning where individuals ascertain how to act or perform by observing another individual. Humanistic Psychology Humanistic PsychologyAbraham H. Maslow 馬斯洛(19081970) Carl Ranson. Rogers 羅杰斯(1902-1987 ) Cognitive TheoryCognitive psychology TheoryThe school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, m