詞匯學(xué)名詞解釋,復(fù)習(xí)提綱

1、第一章： A word can be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning, capable of performing a given syntactic functionThe development of English Vocabulary. Old English (OE) (449-1100)OE is chracterized by the frequent use of compounds. Some OE compou

2、nds involving alliteration have survived in Modern 85% of OE words are no longer in use.Middle English (1100-1500)ME is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.(law andgovernmental administration ) Modern English (1500-the present) The rapid growth of pr

3、esent-day English vocabulary and its causes A. marked progress of science and technology (software, hardware ), political andculturalchanges(credit card,fringebenefit,pressure cooker) C. influence of other culturesandlanguages(maotai, sputnik)classification of English words according to different cr

4、iteria1.By origin : native words and loan words。 Native words(Anglo-Saxon origin of OE) Loan words(borrowed from other language) features of basic word stock : to form collocations . level of usage(1) Common words: stylistically neutral, appropriatein both formal and informal writing andspeech(2) Li

5、terarywords:chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches .A. archaic words: They are sometimes employedin poetry,businessletters, legal documents, religiousspeeches, and proses.words (the deep (the sea), slumber (sleep) m

6、aiden( girl), etc. ) (3) colloquial words： mainly used in spoken English, or in informal writing. (4) slang words (kick the bucket, top-notch teachers, buzz( telephone call)(5) technical words ( psychoanalysis, interlanguage, discovery, assault and coversation )3. Bynotion Function words: determiner

7、s, conjunctions,prepositions,auxiliaries. Content words: nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs.第二章：The morphemeis the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.The classification of morpheme and bound morphemes A free morpheme is one that can be

8、 uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one othermorpheme. 2. roots and affixes 1) roots:A root is the basicunchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexica

9、l meaning of the word. A. free roots : In English, many roots are free morphemes. B. bound roots : Quite a number of roots derived from foreignsources,especially from Greek and Latin. 2) affixesA. inflectionalaffixes:plurality, tense, comparative or superlativedegree. B.derivational affixes (prefixe

10、s and suffixes)第三章：1. Derivation(1)prefixes : Prefixes can be classified into the following categories by their . 表“方式”的前綴()B.表“態(tài)度”的 前綴C.表“程度”的前綴D.表“時 間”的前綴E.表“地點”的前綴F.表“否定”的前綴G.表“大小”的前綴 (2)suffixes (1) -ee:加于動詞后，表 示受事者或施事者(2) -eer: 由其構(gòu) 成的名詞有時含有貶義，表達作者或說 話人對某人的蔑視態(tài)度(3) -er:由其 構(gòu)成的新詞在現(xiàn)代英語中顯得生動活 潑，帶有濃厚的

11、口語色彩(4)-ism(5) -wise: (in terms of, so far as. is concerned)在 方面，就來說is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shift into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. It is alsocalled zero derivation. Types ofconversion 1. N to V conversion A. to put in/o

12、n N 把 放入使 處于B. to give N, to provide with N 給 予，提供 C. to deprive of N 去掉 D. towith N 用 來做 E. tobe/act as N with respect to 像那樣 F. to make/change. into N 使. 成為.，把. 改變 為G. to send/go by N H. tospend the period of time denoted by ND Adj to this type of verb means to make/become.adj. Some adjectives can

13、 only be converted into transitive verbs. adv. to V(to up. To down ) conjunction toV (to but ).V to N這一類詞常與動詞 have, take, give, make等詞搭配使用形成一個短語2)表示行動的結(jié)果(a find, a catch, a cough, etc. ) 3) 原動詞 表示一種行動或行為，轉(zhuǎn)化為名詞后表 示行為的主體，如：(a bore, a cheat, a sneak, a coach, a good kick ) A to N(1) Partial conversionA

14、. 表示 一種類的概念，指具有某種特點的一類 人，不指個別人。B.以-s, -sh, -se, -ch結(jié)尾表示民族概念的形容詞轉(zhuǎn)化為 名詞，與定冠詞連用，指整個民族C.表示抽象概念，指具有某種特點的東西 D.最高級形容詞轉(zhuǎn)化為名詞，其中一些 詞用在固定詞組或英語習(xí)語詞組中。E. 過去分詞構(gòu)成的形容詞轉(zhuǎn)化為名詞。這 類詞前面加定冠詞，不指一般人，而指 特定的人。(2) Complete conversion. N to A.英語中的名詞可以直接用作定語修飾另一個名詞，既不需要加形 容詞詞尾，也不需要任何格的變化，這 樣的定語就是名詞定語.3. Compounding or composition

15、 is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more words to form a new unit, a compound word.Classification of compounds1. Noun compounds(1)a+n ( hard disk, easy chair, deadline) (2) n+n (mousemat, Dream Team, information highway, etc.) (3) adv+n ( after-effect,overburden ) (4) gerund+n

16、(chewing gum, reading lamp) (5 ) present participle+n ( ruling class, floating bridge(6) v+n (swearword, driveway ) (7) n+v ( nightfall, toothpick, watersupply, snowfall ) (8) v+adv(show-off, put-off)(9 ) adv+v(downfall, upset, upstart) 2. adjective compounds(1)由狀語轉(zhuǎn)化 而成的復(fù)合形容詞(an off-the cuff opinion

17、(臨時想起的一點意見)(2)短 語動詞(a stand-up collar ( 豎領(lǐng)) (3)動詞不定式(take-home pay(扣除 稅后的實得工資)a cross-border raid(越界襲擊)(4)定語從句壓縮(a difficult-to-operate machine) 3. verb compounds第四章：Acronymy: Initialism 詞首 字母縮略詞and Acronyms首字母縮略 詞Initialisms( 首字母縮略詞) Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of wo

18、rds to form a proper namea technical term, or a phrase. ( BBC(British BroadcastingCorporation),VIP(Very Important Person)Three types of letters represent full words:( CIA=CentralIntelligenceAgency ofthe)letters represent elements in a compound or just part of a word: ( ID=Identification(card)3.Alett

19、er represents the complete form of the first word, while the second word is in full form.(V-Day=Victory Day) Acronyms :are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc.(SAM=surface-to-air missile SALT=Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) Rapid growth of

20、acronyms and initialisms : space-saving and time-saving devicesClipping :1.Backclippings:(ad=advertisement; gas=gasoline)clippings:(chute=parachute;)andbackclippings:(flu=influenza;fridge=refrigerator )4. Phrase clippings:(pub=public house;pop= popular music)Blending is a process of word-formation i

21、n which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in it full form or both of which are not in their full .First part of the first word+the last part of the second word: (botel (boat+hotel): 汽艇游客旅館)2. First part of the first word+ First part of the se

22、cond word:( psywar(psychological+warfare):心理戰(zhàn))3.Whole form of the first word +last part part of the second word:(viedophone (viedo+telephone)4.First part of the first word+ Whole form of the second word:(helipad(helicopter +pad) 從文體色彩來看，拼綴詞可分為以下三 大類：1.俚語或臨時語2.科技用語3. 報刊用語Back-formation is a term used

23、 to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.Words From Proper Names From names of people From names of places From trdemarks From literature第五章：WordMeaning and Semantic Features1. Conve

24、ntionality and Motivation Conventionality 歸略法：Most English words are conventioal, arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its Motivation 有理據(jù)的：Motivation refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense. Phonetic motivation:Wordsmotivated

25、 phonetically are called echoic words or onomatopoeic words,whosepronounciationsuggests the show a close relationship of sound to sense.（miaow of a cat; roar of a lion;quack of a duck ） Morphological motivation:Whena wordismorphologicallymotivated, adirect connection can be observed between the morp

26、hemic structure of the word and its meaning.（anticancer, kilometer, etc. ） Semantic motivation:It refers to motivation based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association.隱喻：在20世紀的絕大部分的時間里， 隱喻被認為是語義演變的主要因素。相 似性是構(gòu)成隱喻的基礎(chǔ)，是詞義得以演 變的依據(jù)the eye of a needle（ 針眼） the eye of a potato（ 土豆的芽眼）相 似性包括外觀

27、相似、功能相似、褒貶相 似、心理相似等。隱喻的分類（1）結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻：一個概念 通過隱喻的方式系統(tǒng)地用另一個概念 表達出來，兩個概念具有結(jié)構(gòu)上的相似 性（2）方位隱喻：方位隱喻是指參照 空間方位而構(gòu)建的一系列隱喻概念。（3）本體隱喻：用關(guān)于物體的概念或 概念結(jié)構(gòu)來認識和理解我們的經(jīng)驗，如 可將抽象的概念喻說成具體的物體，可 使后者的有關(guān)特征映射到前者上去。（4）容器隱喻：將本體（不是容器的 事物，如大地、視野、事件、行動、狀 態(tài)、心境等）視為一種容器（5）擬人 隱喻：將事體視為具有人性。轉(zhuǎn)喻：轉(zhuǎn)喻基于鄰近聯(lián)想突顯性 （salience） 一件事情、一個物體或一 個概念有很多屬性，而人的認知往往更

28、多地注意到其最突出、最容易記憶和理 解的屬性，即突顯屬性。語境依賴性 types of word meaning grammatical meaning 語法意義指詞中 表示語法概念或關(guān)系的那部分意義，如 詞的詞性、名詞的單復(fù)數(shù)、動詞的時態(tài)。 Lexical meaning denotative meaning/conceptual meaning/cognitive meaningIt is the central factor in linguistic denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary

29、.It is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible. Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one s mind Comparedwith conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable, that is, it may vary accordin

30、g to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. Social or stylistic meaning： Oneof the consequences of the way in which English has developed over the past 1,500 years has been the emergence of different styles. This has been partly due to the influx of new words from other la

31、nguages such as Latin and French and partly to the varietyof social needs whichEnglishhas had to fulfill. .Affective . Reflexive meaning ： Reflexivemeaning is the meaningwhich arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, whenone sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. meanin

32、g ： The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context are calledcollocative meaningsmeaningi ： mainly a matter of choice between alternativegrammaticalconstructions.文化差異：文化差異往往和不可譯性 聯(lián)系起來，主要表現(xiàn)在帶有文化含義的 語項翻譯上。英漢兩種語言所體現(xiàn)出來 的文化異同表現(xiàn)在多個方面，但主要集 中在概念意義

33、和聯(lián)想意義上，可粗略歸 類為等額對應(yīng)、差額對應(yīng)和文化空缺。 (1)等額對應(yīng)，是指甲文化語境下的某 一表達形式在另一語言文化背景下能 找到現(xiàn)成的表達形式。(入鄉(xiāng)隨俗When in Rome, do as the Romans do ) (2) 差額對應(yīng)指英漢兩種語言都擁有某一 文化概念，但兩種概念在文化語義層面 并不完全對應(yīng)。(母親望子成龍Themother longs to see her son becomea dragon.).英漢文化差異的表現(xiàn)(1)動物的聯(lián)想 意義(狗急跳墻 A cornered beast will do something desperate) (2)顏色的 聯(lián)想意

34、義(紅包red envelope 紅娘 matchmaker)部詞與詞的搭配使用Homonymy. Types of homonyms: Perfect homonyms: words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning. Homophones: words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Homographs: words identical in spelling but different in sound and meanin

35、g.The stylistic value of polysemy and homonymy :Context plays a very important role in the hearer s interpretation of words of these two and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieve humour or irony, or to heighten dramatic effect.第六章： Whena word has two or more meanings that are related

36、conceptually or historically, it is said to be polysemous or is also an essentialfeatureoflanguage seconomyandefficiency.approaches to polysemy : One is diachronic, the other is synchronic. ProcessesleadingtopolysemyA.Concatenation2.語境是幫助譯者確定多義詞詞義的 最有效的途徑。我們在此主要探討兩種 語境，即話題語境和搭配語境在翻譯實 踐中確定多義詞詞義的作用。1.

37、話題語 境：話題指話語所涉及的主題或內(nèi)容 common一詞在法律領(lǐng)域與其他詞搭配 完全喪失了 “普通的；共有的”等含義。（common assurance 物權(quán)證書）2.搭配語境：搭配語境指的是句子成分內(nèi)第七章：1. Synonymy There are also words that sound different but have the same meaning. Such words are called synonyms and the sense relation of “samenessof meaning” is calledsynonymy. Two kinds ofsyno

38、nyms Complete (perfect) synonyms： are very rare. Examples are spirants and fricatives in phonetics, word-formation and word-building in lexicology. Relative synonyms： differ from complete synonyms in the following respects:(1) In degree of a given quality or in (2) In affective and stylisticmeaning(

39、3) Incollocation and distribution:Wordsthat are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms And the oppositeness of meaning is called antonymy.Types of Antonyms ( 1 ) Contraries( 相對性反義詞) Contraries display a type of semantic contrast, illustrated by such pairs as rich and poor, heavy and light, .

40、Complementaries (Contradictories)( 互補反義詞) Complementaries represent a type of binary semantic contrast. In a complementary pair the contrast between the two terms is absolute, that is they are in such a relationship that “ the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other: an entity

41、can not be both at once. 3. Conversives (反向或逆反反義詞) Antonyms classified on the basis of morphological structure 1. Root antonyms : Words like love-hate, up-down are root antonyms for they are words with different . Derivational antonyms ： Words with the same roots having negative affixes.Somerelevant

42、 points about antonyms 1. Marked and unmarked members Antonyms often do not have equal status with respect to markedness.In certain pairs of gradable antonyms, one word is marked and the other unmarked. 2. Some words without antonyms 3. Different antonyms under different circumstances ：1) Differentc

43、ircumstances give rise to different antonyms:2) Differentcontexts bring about different antonyms 3)Some words with different collocations have different antonyms 4. Lexical antonyms vs. syntactic negation ： Lexical antonymy is often stronger than syntactic negation (using not). Hyponymy We know that

44、 the English words red, white, blue, etc. are “colour ” terms, that is, they have the feature indicating a category to which they all belong. Semantic(Lexical) field s第八章： Two types of context context 語言語境(1) Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemous word.(2) Gramm

45、atical grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word(3) Verbal verbal context, in its broad sense, may cover an entire passage, or even an entire book, and in somecases even the entire social or cultural setting.context (Conte

46、xt of situation)語 言語境(1) The actual speech situation in which a word occurs(2) The entire cultural background against which a word, or an utterance or a speech event has to be set.The vital role of context in determination of word meaning 1. Eliminating ambiguities Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase

47、, sentence or a group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning 2. Conveying emotional overtone3. Indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word1.Suggested ways for the correct comprehension of word meaning use of an up-to-date and adequate monolingual dictionar

48、y2. A good knowledge of the culture of the English-speaking of the ability to determine the meaning of a word from its context第九章： Causes of changes in word meaning Historical cause Social cause Foreign influences Linguistic cause Psychological cause詞義演變?nèi)齽右蚩陀^動因：客 觀世界每一個引起人們注意的變化都 會及時地反映到詞義中。主觀動因： 語言

49、的使用者是人，人的主觀世界如思 想觀念和心理感情等的變化必然導(dǎo)致 詞義演變。語言動因：詞義的演變 跟語言本身的發(fā)展也有關(guān)。由于語言接 觸，出現(xiàn)借詞的大量涌入，使原有詞的 詞義發(fā)生演變。Four tendencies in semantic changeRestrictionof meaning（specialization）1.詞 義的縮 /J、 （ specialization or narrowing ）指詞從原先表達外延較寬 的概念縮小到外延較狹窄的概念。（1） 從泛指到特指：meat原指“各種食物”， 在 sweetmeat （甜食）,greenmeat （蔬 菜）（2）從抽象到具體：

50、room 一詞從 前的意義是“空間”、“地方”（3）從普 通名詞到專有名詞.prophet（預(yù)言者， 先知）寫成the Prophet時，伊斯蘭教 徒都知道是指穆罕默德；（4）從一般詞 語到術(shù)語。許多科學(xué)術(shù)語都來自一般詞 語。recovery（ 恢復(fù)），of meaning （generalization） 詞義 的擴大指從原先表達外延較狹窄的概 念擴大到外延較寬的概念，其結(jié)果是新 義大于舊義，舊義包含在新義之中。（1） 從特指到泛指bird （幼鳥-鳥）（2）從具體到抽 象grasp的原義是用手“抓牢，握緊”， 指的是具體的動作。（3）從術(shù)語到一般 詞語bullish（股市看漲的）源自股市的“牛市的”、“行情看漲的（4）從專有 名詞到普通名詞 sandwitch（三明治， 夾肉面包）來自桑德威奇伯爵四世