資源與環(huán)境經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)chapter

1、Chapter 2 Valuing The Environment: Concepts1. IntroductionMain contents:Develop the general conceptual framework used in economics to approach environmental problems.Examining the relationship between human actions, as manifested through the economic system, and the environmental consequences of tho

2、se actions.Establish criteria for judging the desirability of the es of this relationship.2. The Human Environmental Relationship2.1 The Environment as an Asset2.2 The Economic Approach2.1 The Environment as an AssetIn economics the environment is viewed as a composite asset that provides a variety

3、of services.Provides the economy with raw materials and energyAlso provides services directly to consumers, such as air, water, amenities, etc.2.1 The Environment as an AssetIf the environment is defined broadly enough, the relationship between the environment and the economic system can be consider

4、ed a closed system.A closed system is one in which no inputs are received from outside the system and no outputs are transferred outside the system.An open system is one in which the system imports or exports matter or energy.2.1 The Environment as an AssetThe first law of thermodynamicsThe law stat

5、es that energy and matter cannot be created or destroyed in a closed system.The law implies that the mass of materials flowing into the economic system from the environment has to either accumulate in the economic system or return to the environment as waste.2.1 The Environment as an AssetThe second

6、 law of thermodynamicsThe law states that entropy increases.Applied to energy processes, this law implies that no conversion from one form of energy to another is completely efficient and that the consumption of energy is an irreversible process.Also implies that in the absence of new energy input,

7、any closed system must eventually use up its energy.2.2 The Economic ApproachTwo different types of economic analysis can be applied to increase our understanding of the relationship between the economic system and the environment.Positive economics attempts to describe what is, what was, or what wi

8、ll beNormative economics deals with what ought to be.3. Normative Criteria for Decision-MakingEconomists suggest that actions have both benefits and costs. If the benefits exceed the costs, then the action is desirable. If the costs exceed the benefits, then the action is not desirable.If BC, then s

9、upport the action, otherwise oppose the actionIf B/C1, support the action otherwise, oppose the action3. Normative Criteria for Decision-MakingHow to measure benefits and costs?3. Normative Criteria for Decision-MakingBenefits can be derived from the demand curve for the good or service provided by

10、the action. Demand curves measures the amount of a particular good people would be willing to purchase at various prices.Figure 2.2Figure 2.33. Normative Criteria for Decision-MakingMeasuring total costs on the same set of axes involves logic similar to measuring total benefits.All costs should be m

11、easured as opportunity costs.It is important to stress that environmental services have costs even though they are produced without any human input.Total cost is simply the sum of the marginal costs.Figure 2.43. Normative Criteria for Decision-MakingSince net benefit is defined as the excess of bene

12、fits over costs, it follows that net benefit is equal to that portion of the area under the demand curve which lies above the supply curve.Figure 2.53. Normative Criteria for Decision-MakingThe analysis we have covered so far is very useful for thinking about actions where time is not an important f

13、actor.How can we make choices when the benefits and costs may occur at different points in time?In order to incorporate timing, the decision rule must provide a way to compare the net benefit received in one period with the net benefit received in another. The concept that allows this comparison is

14、called present value.3. Normative Criteria for Decision-MakingThe present value of a one-time net benefits received n years from now is The present value of a stream of net benefits B0,Bn received over a period of n years is computed as 3. Normative Criteria for Decision-MakingIt is now possible to

15、show how this analysis can be used to evaluate actions.First calculate the present value of net benefits from the actionIf the present value is greater than zero, the action should be supported. Otherwise it should not.4. Finding the Optimal eThree steps proceeded by normative analysis:First we will

16、 identify an optimal e.Second we will attempt to discern the extent to which our institutions produce optimal es and, where divergences occur between actual and optimal es, to attempt to uncover the behavioral sources of the problems.Finally designing appropriate policy solutions. Examples:Consider

17、the rising number of depleted ocean fisheries. Depleted fisheries not only jeopardize oceanic biodiversity, but also pose a threat to both the individuals who make their living from the sea and the communities that have depended on fishing to support their local economies. How would an economist att

18、empt to understand and to resolve this problem?Example:The first step would involve defining the optimal stock or the optimal rate of harvest of the fishery.The second step would compare this level with the actual stock and harvest levels.The third step would reach the solutions.4.1 Static Efficienc

19、yThe chief normative economic criterion for choosing among various allocations occurring at the same point in time is called static efficiency.An allocation of resources is said to satisfy the static efficiency criterion if the net benefit from the use of those resources is maximized by that allocat

20、ion.4.1 Static EfficiencyFirst Equimarginal Principle (the “Efficiency Equimarginal Principle”): Net benefits are maximized when the marginal benefits from an allocation equal the marginal costs.Pareto Optimality: Allocations are said to be Pareto optimal if no other feasible allocation could benefi

21、t some people without any deleterious effects on at least one other person.4.2 Dynamic EfficiencyThe traditional criterion used to find an optimal allocation when time is involved is called dynamic efficiency.An allocation of resources across n time periods satisfies the dynamic efficiency criterion if it maximizes the present value of net benefits that could be received from all the possible ways of allocation those resources over the n periods.Further reading:A 邁克里 弗里曼，環(huán)境與資源價(jià)值評(píng)估理論與方法，中國(guó)人民大學(xué)出版社，2002Objectives & Requirements:Understand the human envi