簡明教程練習(xí)題

《新編簡明英語語言學(xué)》第二版練習(xí)題參考答Chapter1Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyof答：Linguisticsisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,thelinguistshastocollectandobservelanguagefacts,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Thehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation,thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?WhatdoeseachofthemThemajorbranchesoflinguisticsphonetics語音學(xué)itstudiesthesoundsusedinlinguisticphonology音韻學(xué)itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaninginmorphology構(gòu)詞法:itstudiesthewayinwhichlinguisticsymbolsrepresentingsoundsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords;syntax句法學(xué):itstudiestheruleswhichernhowwordsarecombinedtoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages;semantics語義學(xué)itstudiesmeaningconveyedbypragmatics語用學(xué)itstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageInwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditional答：Teralapproachthustraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyearsisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.ly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisSecond,modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitsThen,modemlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedIsmodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?答：Inmodemlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Becausepeoplebelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthanto答：Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwrittenThenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.Thustheirdataforinvestigationandysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasHowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?答：Saussure'sdistinctionandChomsky'sareverysimilartheydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicaloflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionof答 ofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtoSecond,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesisFourth,languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifeWhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?答：ThemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagearetermeddesignfeaturesTheyLanguageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfiniylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Languageconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat“displacement”means.CulturalWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.Whatarethemajorfunctionsoflanguage?ThinkofyourownexamplesforThreemainfunctionsareoftenrecognizedoflanguage:thedescriptivefunction,theexpressivefunction,andthesocialfunction.Thedescriptivefunctionisthefunctiontoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbeassertedordenied,andinsomecasesevenverified.Forexample:“Chinaisalargecountrywithalonghistory.”Theexpressivefunctionsinformationabouttheuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues.Forexample:“Iwillnevergowindow-shopwithher.”Thesocialfunctionservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople..Forexample:“Weareyourfirmsupporters.”Chapter2SpeechWhatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprindSpeechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticOfthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismoreprimarythanwriting,forreasons,pleaserefertotheanswertothefifthprobleminthelastchapter.Whatisvoicingandhowisit答：VoicingisaqualityofspeechsoundsandafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Itiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscription答：Thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksfeneralpurposes.Thelatter,i.e.thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]isusedforthesounds[l]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ].Asamatteroffact,thesound[l]inallthesefoursoundcombinationsdiffersslightly.The[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledadear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[1]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringatofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[1]asin“l(fā)eaf”.Itisdark[?]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[?]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombination[helθ],sound[l]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound[θ],itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[l],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[、isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[helθ].Anotherexampleistheconsonant[p].Weallknowthat[p]ispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised“h”isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[ph?t]andspitistranscribedas[sp?t].HowaretheEnglishconsonants答：Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,nasalsandglides.Intermsofplaceofarticulation,itcanbeclassifiedintofollowingtypes:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velarandglottal.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglish答：Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,central,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Tofurtherdistinguishmembersofeachgroup,weneedtoapplyanothercriterion,i.e.theopennessofthemouth.Accordingly,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.Athirdcriterionthatisoftenusedintheclassificationofvowelsistheshofthelips.InEnglish,allthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunfoundedvowels,i.e.,withoutroundingthelips,andallthebackvowels,withexceptionof[a:],arerounded.ItshouldbenotedthatsomefrontvowelscanbepronouncedwithroundedA.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsoundvoicedpalatalvoicelesslabiodentalvoicedalveolarfront,close,back,semi-open,voicelessbilabialB.Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowing1)[t 2)[l 3) 4) 5) 6)答：A.(1) (2)[f (3)[d (4)[?](5)[?:](6)B.(1)voicelessalveolar (2)voicedalveolar(3)voicelesspalatal (4)voicedbilabial(5)back,close, (6)front,Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,[l]and[?],[ph]and[p],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?(1)BothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguagethespeechsoundsButbotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguistic(2)Aphonologistwillbemoreinterestedinit.Becauseoneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindoutrulethaternsthedistributionof[l]and[?],[ph]and[p].Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoa答：Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/l/inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[?],clear[l],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletion答：RulesthaternthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialTherearemanysuchsequentialrulesinEnglish.Forexample,ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Thatiswhy[lbik][lkbi]areimpossiblecombinationsinEnglish.Theyhaveviolatedtherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighbouringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This“sloppy”tendencymay eregularizedasrulesoflanguage.WeallknowthatnasalizationisnotaphonologicalfeatureinEnglish,i.e.,itdoesnotdistinguishmeaning.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatvowelsinEnglisharenevernasalizedinactualpronunciation;infacttheyarenasalizedincertainphoneticcontexts.Forexample,the[i:]soundisnasalizedinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsthe[i:]soundisfollowedbyanasal[n]or[m].Theassimilationrulealsoaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasal[n]insomesoundcombinations.Theruleisthatwithinaword,thenasal[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfollowsit.WeknowthatinEnglishtheprefixin-canbeaddedtomaadjectivetomakethemeaningofthewordnegative,e.g.discreet–indiscreet,correct–incorrect.Butthe[n]soundintheprefixin-isnotalwayspronouncedasanalveolarnasal.Itissointhewordindiscreetbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsit,i.e.[d],isveolarstop,butthe[n]soundinthewordincorrectisactuallypronouncedasavelarnasal,i.e.[?];thisisbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsitis[k],whichisavelarstop.Sowecanseethatwhilepronouncingthesound[n],weare“copying”afeatureoftheconsonantthatfollowsit.Deletionrulelsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:Deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Giventherule,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsinsign–signature,resign–resignation,phlegm–phlegmatic,paradigm–paradigmaticwillincludethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeletedaccordingtotheregularruleifnosuffixis Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?答：Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanoun,toaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Tonesarepitchvariationswhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Chapter3Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneaorphemeandthe f. g. h.答：a.micro+ b.be+draggle+c.announce+ d.pre+digest+e.e+communicate+ f.fore+g.psycho+ h.mechan+Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.Model:-orsuffix:-meaning:theorthingperformingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:actor,“onewhoactsinstageplays,motionpictures,etc.”translator,“onewho答：(1) - somethingcanbedoneoris addedto acceptable,“canberespectable,“canbe(2) - stem addedto freely.“adverbialformof‘free’”quickly,“adverbialformof'quick'”.(3) - thereceivingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:employee,“onewhoworksinacompany”interviewee,“onewhoisinterviewed”Thinkofthreemorphemeprefixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybeprefixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.Model:a-prefix:meaning:“without;stemtype:addedtoexamples:asymmetric,“l(fā)ackingsymmetry”asexual,“withoutsexorsex答：(1) showinganoppositestemtype: addedtoverbsornounsexamples:disapprove,“donotdishonesty,“l(fā)ackof against,opposedstem addedtonounsorexamples antinuclear,“opposingtheuseofatomicweaponsandantisocial,“opposedorharmfultothelawsandcustomsofananizedcommunity. theoppositeofstem addedtonounsor counterproductive,“producingresultsoppositetothoseintended”counteract,“actagainstandreducetheforceoreffectof(sth.)”Theitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesisaninflectionalmorpheme.Studyeachinflectionalmorphemecarefullyandpointoutitsgrammaticalmeaning.Suemovesinhigh-societycirclesinLondon.AtrafficwardenaskedJohntomovehiscar.TheclubhasmovedtoFriday,February22nd.Thebranchesofthetreesaremovingbackand答：(1)the thepastthepresentthepresentDeterminewhetherthewordsineachofthefollowinggroupsarerelatedtooneanotherbyprocessesofinflectionorderivation.go,goes,going,discover,discovery,discoverer,discoverable,inventor,inventor’s,inventors,democracy,democrat,democratic,答：(略Thefollowingsentencescontainbothderivationalandinflectionalaffixes.Underlineallofthederivationalaffixesandcircletheinflectionalaffixes.Thefarmer’scowsescItwasThosesocksareJimneedsthenewerThestrongestrowerShequicklyclosedtheThealphabetizationwent答：(略Chapter4WhatisSyntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthaterntheformationofsentences.WhatisphrasestructureThegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelements(i.e.specifiers,heads,andcomplements)thatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.ThephrasestructuralruleforNP,VP,AP,andPPcanbewrittenasfollows:NP→(Det)N(PP)...VP→(Qual)V(NP)AP→(Deg)A(PP)PP→(Deg)P(NP)Teralphrasalstructuralrule(XstandsfortheheadN,V,AorTheXPrule:XP→(specifier)XWhatiscategory?Howtodetermineaword'sCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Todetermineaword'scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namelymeaning,inflectionanddistribution.Aword'sdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutitsmeaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyitssyntacticcategory.WhatiscoordinatestructureandwhatpropertiesdoesitThestructureformedbyjoininoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctioniscalledcoordinatestructures.ConjunctionexhibitsfourimportantThereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheAcategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbeCoordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesameThecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingWhaementsdoesaphrasecontainandwhatroledoeseachelementAphraseusuallycontainsthefollowingelements:head,specifierandcomplement.Sometimesitalsocontainsanotherkindofelementtermedmodifier.TheroleofeachHeadisthewordaroundwhichaphraseisSpecifierhasbothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles.Semantically,ithelpstomakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.Syntactically,ittypicallymarksaphraseboundary.Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.ModifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesoftheWhatisdeepstructureandwhatissurfaceTherearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure.The,formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead'ssubcategorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure(orD-structure).Thesecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(orS-structure).Nlady offNlady offthebusPDetN crashedontotheriverbank. blindingsnow clothytheofPNVA（以下8-12題只作初步的的成分劃分，未畫樹形圖,參考Thefollowingphrasesincludeahead,acomplement,andaspecifier.DrawtheappropriatetreestructureforrichinXP(AP)→head(rich)A+complement(inminerals)oftenreaddetectiveXP(VP)→specifier(often)Qual+head(read)V+complement(detectivestories)theargumentagainsttheXP(NP)→specifier(the)Det+head(argument)N+complement(againsttheproposals)alreadyabovetheXP(VP)→specifier(already)Deg+head(above)P+complement(thewindow)Thefollowingsentencescontainmodifiersofvarioustypes.Foreachsentence,identifythemodifier(s),thendrawthetreestructures.（劃的為動(dòng)詞的修飾語，斜體的為名詞的修飾語）AcrippledpassengerlandedtheairplanewithextremeAhugemoonhungintheblackThemanexaminedhiscarcarefullyAwoodenhutnearthelakecollapsedintheThefollowingsentencesallcontainconjoinedcategories.Drawatreestructureforeachofthesentences.（劃JimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandHelenputonherclothesandwentMaryisfondofliteraturebuttiredofThefollowingsentencesallcontainembeddedclausesthatfunctionascomplementsofaverb,anadjective,aprepositionoranoun.Drawatreestructureforeachsentence.（劃的為補(bǔ)語從句）YouknowthatIhateGerrybelievesthefactthatAnnaflunkedtheEnglishChriswashappythathisfatherboughthimaRolls-ThechildrenarguedoverwhetherbatshadEachofthefollowingsentencescontainsarelativeclause.Drawthedeepstructureandthesurfacestructuretreesforeachofthesesentences.（劃的為關(guān)系從句）TheessaythathewrotewasHerbertboughtahousethatsheThegirlwhomheadoresmajorsinThederivationsofthefollowingsentencesinvolvetheinversiontransformation.Givethedeepstructureandthesurfacestructureofeachofthesesentences.Wouldyoucometomorrow?(surfaceyouwouldcometomorrow(deepWhatdidHelenbringtotheparty?(surfaceHelenbroughtwhattotheparty(deepWhobrokethewindow?(surfacewhobrokethewindow(deepChapter5Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyof答：(1)ThenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlatoAccordingtothistheorythelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Theconceptualistviewhasbeenheldbysomephilosophersandlinguistsfromancienttimes.Thisviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Thecontextualistviewheldthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context––elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.TherepresentativeofthisapproachwasJ.R.Firth,famousBritishBehavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.Whatarethemajortypesofsynonymsin Themajortypesofsynonymsaredialectalsynonyms,stylisticsynonyms,emotiveorevaluativesynonyms,collocationalsynonyms,andsemanticallydifferentsynonyms. Explainwithexamples“homonymy”,“polysemy”,and答：(1)Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompleteWhiledifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.TherearemanypolysemicwordsinEnglish,Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanoneHyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.Hyponymyisarelationofinclusion;intermsofmeaning,thesuperordinateincludesallitshyponyms.Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?Towhichcategorydoeseachofthefollowingpairsofantonymsbelong? literate/illiterateabove/belowdoctor/patientwide/narrowpoor/richfather/daughter答：Theycanbegradableantonyms,complementaryantonymsandrelationalGradableantonyms: wide Complementaryantonyms:Relationalopposite:north/south,doctor/patient,father/daughter,Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowingpairsofsentences:Tom'swifeispregnant. Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced'Tomhasawife. Mysisterisamarriedwoman.Helikes TheyaregoingtohaveanotherHelikes Theyhavea“Tom'swifeispregnant”presupposesTomhasa“Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced”presupposes“Mysisterisamarriedwoman.”“Helikesseafood”isentailedby“Helikescrabs.”“Theyaregoingtohaveanotherbaby”presupposes“TheyhaveaInwhatwayiscomponentialysissimilartotheysisofphonemesintodistinctive答：TheybothbaseonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningWhatisgrammaticality?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemantically答：Grammaticalityreferstothegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Theviolationoftheselectionalrestrictions,i.e.,constrainsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers,mightmakeagrammaticallymeaningless.TrytoyzethefollowingsentencesintermsofpredicationThemansellsice-cream. Isthebabyslee?Itissnowing. Thetreegrowswell.答：Themansellsice-MAN,ICE-CREAMIsthebabyslee?BABY(SLEEP)Itissnowing.Thetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)Chapter6Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditional答：Generallyspeaking,pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaninginthecontext.Itstudiesmeaninginadynamicwayandasaprocess.Inordertohaveasuccessfulcommunication,thespeakerandhearermusttakethecontextintotheirconsiderationsoastoeffecttherightmeaningandintention.Thedevelopmentandestablishmentpragmaticsin1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudysemantics.However,itisdifferentfromthetraditionalsemantics.Themajordifferencebetweenthemliesinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaninginadynamicway,whilesemanticsstudiesmeaninginastaticway.Pragmaticstakescontextintoconsiderationwhilesemanticsdoesnot.Pragmaticstakescareoftheaspectofmeaningthatisnotaccounte