同方-英語短文翻譯80篇

01TheLanguageofApainterhangshisorherfinishedpictureonawall,andeveryonecanposerwritesawork,but onecanhearituntilitProfessionalsingersandplayershavegreatresponsibilities,forthecomposerisutterlydependentonthem.Astudentofmusicneedsaslongandasarduousatraining eaperformerasamedicalstudenteadoctor.Mosttrainingsiconcernedwithtechnique,formusicianshavetohavethemuscularproficiencyofanathleteoradancer.Singerspracticebreathingeveryday, theirvocalbeinadequatewithoutcontrolledmuscularsupport.Stringplayersmovingthefingersofthelefthandupanddown,whiledrawingthebowandfrowiththerightarm--twoentirelydifferentSingersandinstrumentalistshavetobeabletogeteverynoteperfectlytune.Pianistsaresparedthisparticularanxiety,forthenotesarealreadythere,waitingforthem,anditisthepianotuner'sresponsibilitytotunetheinstrumentforthem.Buttheyhavetheirowndifficulties:thehammersthathitthestringshavetobecoaxednottosoundlikepercussion,andeachoverlaptonehastosoundThisproblemofgettingcleartextureisonethatconfrontsstudentconductors:theyhavetolearntoknoweverynoteofthemusicandhowitshouldsound,andtheyhavetoaimatcontrollingthesesoundswithfanaticalbut selflessauthority.Techniqueisofno unlessitis combinedwithmusicalandunderstanding.Greatartistsarethosewhoaresothoroughlyathomeinthelanguageofmusicthattheycanenjoyperformingworkswritten01音樂的語全地依賴于職業(yè)歌手和職業(yè)演奏者，所以職業(yè)歌手和職業(yè)演奏者一名學音樂的學生要想成為一名演奏者，需要經(jīng)受長期的、嚴格的訓練，就象一名醫(yī)科的學生要成為一名醫(yī)生一樣。絕大多數(shù)的音樂家們控制肌肉的熟練程度，必須達到與運動員或巴蕾舞演員相當?shù)乃健８枋謧兠刻於季毶ぷ?，因為如果不能有效地控帶將不能滿足演唱的要求。弦樂器的演奏者練習的則是在左手的使所有的音符完全相同協(xié)調(diào)。鋼琴家們則不用操這份心，因為每

責。 及其發(fā)音之道。他們還方面的知識和悟性結(jié)合起來，單純的技巧沒有任何用處。02SchoolingandItiscommonlybelievedintheUnitedStatesthatschooliswheregotogetaneducation.Nevertheless,ithasbeensaidthattodaychildreninterrupttheireducationtogotoschool.Thedistinctionbetweenschoolingandeducationimpliedbythisremarkisimportant.Educationismuoreopen-endedandall-inclusivethanschooling.Educationknowsnobounds.Itcantakeplaceanywhere,whetherintheshowerorinthejob,whetherinakitchenoronatractor.Itincludesboththeformallearningthattakesplaceinschoolsandthewholeuniverseofinformallearning.ntsofeducationcanrangefromareveredgrandparenttothepeopledebatingpoliticsontheradio,fromachildtoadistinguishedWhereasschoolinghasacertainpredictability,educationquiteoftenproducessurprises.Achanceconversation withastrangermayleadtodiscoverhowlittleisknownofotherreligions.Peopleareengagededucationfrominfancyon.Education, isaverybroad,term.Itisalifelongprocess,aprocessthatstartslongbeforethestartofschool,andonethatshouldbeanintegralpartofone'sentirelife.Schooling,ontheotherhand,isaspecific,formalizedprocess,whosegeneralpatternvariesilttlefrom settingtothenext. childrenarriveat thesametime,takeassignedseats,aretaughtbyanadult,usesimilartextbooks,do,takeexams,andsoon.Theslicesofrealityaretobelearned,whethertheyarethealphabetoranunderstandingofworkingsofernment,have boundariesofthesubjectbeingtaught.Forexample,highschoolstudentsknowthattheyarenotlikelytofindoutintheirclassesthetruthaboutpoliticalproblemsintheircommunitiesorwhatthenewestfilmmakersareexperimentingTherearedefiniteconditionssurroundingtheformalizedprocessof在，人們通常認為上學是為了受教育。而現(xiàn)在卻有人認為孩子們上學打斷了他們受教育的過程。這種觀念中的上學與受教育與上學相比，教育更具開放性，內(nèi)容更廣泛。教育不受任何限制。它可以在任何場合下進行，在淋浴時，在工作時，在廚房里或拖也可以是知名的科學家。上學讀書多少有點可預見性，而教育往往能帶來意外的發(fā)現(xiàn)。與陌生人的一次隨意談話可能會使人認識到自己對其它其實所知甚少。

exchangedfortheasked-foramountofmoneyinorderthattheymayevaluateagivenprice."價格"的定義價格決定資源的使用方式。價格也是有限的產(chǎn)品與 人們從幼時起就開始受教育。因此，教育是一個內(nèi)涵很豐富的詞，交 的形程。小異大致相同的，做作業(yè)，考試等等。 受到科目范圍的限制。題的真情，也不會了解到 03TheDefinitionofPricesdeterminehowresourcesaretobeused.Theyarealsothemeanswhichproductsandservicesthatareinlimitedsupplyarerationedbuyers.ThepricesystemoftheUnitedStatesisacomplexnetwork thepricesofalltheproductsboughtandsoldintheeconomy professional,transportation,andpublic-utilityservices.Theinterrelationshipsofallthesepricesmake upthe"system"ofprices.Thepriceofanyparticularproductorserviceislinkedtoabroad,complicatedsystemofpricesinwhicheverythingtodependmoreorlessuponeverythingelse.Ifoneweretoaskaofrandomlyselected todefine"price",manywouldreplythatpriceisanamountofmoneypaidbythebuyertothesellerofproductserviceor,inotherwords,thatpriceisthemoney productorserviceasagreeduponinamarketdefinitionis,ofcourse,validasfarasitgoes.Foracompleteunderstandingofapriceinanyparticulartransaction,mu theamountofmoneyinvolvedmustbeknown.Boththebuyerandthesellershouldbefamiliarwithnotonlythemoneyamount,but amountandqualityoftheproductorservicetobeexchanged,thetimeandplaceatwhichtheexchangewilltakeplaceandpaymentwillbemade,theformmoneytobeused,thecredittermsanddiscountsthatapply tothetransaction,guaranteesontheproductorservice,deliveryterms,returnprivileges,andotherfactors.In otherwords,bothbuyerandsellerbefullyawareofallthefactorsthatcomprisethetotal

所有統(tǒng)。別產(chǎn)品或品或服務，買方向其付出的錢數(shù)。該定義就其本身來說自有其道理。"非貨幣"因素的影響。不但要清楚交易中的錢數(shù)，而且惠，對交易物的質(zhì)量保證、交貨條款、退賠權(quán)利等等。也就是說，為了能估算索價，必須通曉構(gòu)成交易物價04Themodernageisanageofelectricity.Peoplearesousedtoelectriclights,radio,evisions,andephonesthatitishardtoimaginewhatlifewouldbelikewithoutthem.Whenthereisapowerfailure,peoplegropeabout inflickeringcandlelight,carshesitateinthestreetstherearenotrafficlightstoguidethem,andfoodspoilsinsilentYet,peoplebegantounderstandhowelectricityworksonlyalittlemorethantwocenturiesago.Naturehasapparentlybeenexperimentinginthisfieldyears.Scientistsarediscoveringmoreandmorethatthelivingworldholdmanyinterestingsecretsofelectricitythatcouldbenefithumanity.Alllivingcellssendouttinypulsesofelectricity.Astheheartbeats, dsoutpulsesofrecord;theyform whichadoctorcanstudytodeterminehowwelltheheartisworking.Thetoo,sendsoutbrainwavesofelectricity,whichcanberecordedinelectroencephalogram.Theelectriccurrentsgeneratedby cellsareextremelysmall--oftensosmalltha sitiveinstrumentsneededtorecordthem.Butinsomeanimals,certainmusclecellsesospecializedaselectricalgeneratorsthattheydonotworkasmusclecells all.When numbersof thesecellsaretogether,theeffectscanbeTheelectriceelisanamazingstoragebattery.Itcansendajoltofasmuchaseighthundredvoltsofelectricitythrough thewaterinwhichitlives.(Anelectrichousecurrentisonlyonehundredtwentymanyas four-fifthsofallthecellsintheelectriceel'sbodyspecializedforgeneratingelectricity,andthestrengthoftheshockitcandelivercorrespondsroughlytothelengthofitsbody.電時代是電氣時代。人們對電燈、收音機、電視和早已司空見慣以致很難想象沒有它們生活會變成什么樣。當停電時，人們在搖曳不定的燭光下暗中摸索；因沒有紅綠燈的指示，汽車在道遲疑不前；冰箱也停止工作，導致食物變質(zhì)。了數(shù)百萬年。科學家不生物細胞都會發(fā)出微小的電脈沖。生了解心臟的工作狀況。大腦也發(fā)出腦電波，這可在腦電圖上記許多生物細胞發(fā)出的電流都是極微小的，小到要用靈敏儀器才

considerableimportancewasattachedtoavoidingmistakesintheenactmentofrites,religiousleadersusuallyassumedthattask.Wearingmasksandcostumes,theyoften animals,orsupernaturalbeings,andmimedthedesiredeffect --successinhuntbattle,thecomingrain,therevivaloftheSun--asanactormight.Eventuallysuchdramatic Anothertheorytracesthetheater'soriginfromthehumaninterestinstoryling.Accordingtothisviewtales(aboutthehunt,war,orotherfeats)aregraduallyelaborated,atfirstthroughtheuseof anddialoguebyanarratorandthenthroughtheassumptionofeachoftherolesbyadifferent .Acloselyrelated tothosedancesthatareprimarilyrhythmical andgymnasticorthatare ofanimalmovementsand 普遍為人接受的理論假設認為戲劇從儀式演化而來。這種細胞大量地連接在一起時產(chǎn)生的效果將是非常令人吃驚的。電鰻就是一種令人驚異的蓄電池。它可以在水中發(fā)出相當于800壓電流(家庭用戶的電壓只有120伏特)。在電鰻的身體里，多至五分之四的細胞都專門用來發(fā)電，而且發(fā)出的電流的強度大約05TheBeginningofTherearemanytheoriesaboutthebeginningofdramainancientTheonemostwidelyacceptedtodayisbasedontheassumptionthatevolvedfromritual.Theargumentforthisviewgoesasfollows.Inthebeginning,humanbeingsviewedthenaturalforcesoftheworld-evenseasonalchanges-asunpredictable,andtheysoughtthroughvarioustocontroltheseunknownandfearedpowers.Thosemeasureswhichappearedtobring thedesiredresultswerethenretainedanduntiltheyhardenedintofixedrituals.Eventuallystoriesaroseexplainedorveiledthemysteriesoftherites.Astimepassedsomewereabandoned,butthestories,latercalledmyths,persistedandmaterialforartandThosewhobelievethatdramaevolvedoutofritualalsoarguethatthoseritescontainedtheseedoftheaterbecausemusic,dance,andcostumeswerealmostalwaysused.Furthermore,asuitablesitehadtobeprovidedforperformancesandwhentheentiredidnotparticipate,acleardivisionwasusuallymadethe"actingarea"and"auditorium."Inaddition,therewereperformers,and,

們試圖通過各種方式去控令人恐懼的力量。那些似乎帶來了滿意結(jié)果的就被保留下來隨著時間的推移，一些儀式被廢棄了，但這些后來被稱作神話的點；如果不是整個社區(qū)參加演出，經(jīng)常在"演出區(qū)"和"觀眾席"另外，儀式中還有演員，而且通常承擔演出任務，因為的雨、的。最后這些戲劇性的表演從中分離了另一個追溯戲劇的理論認為它來自人們對敘述故事的。根據(jù)這個觀點，故事(關于狩獵、或者其它偉績)是逐漸豐富起另一個與之緊密相關的理論將戲劇的追溯至舞蹈，這些舞蹈體上是有節(jié)奏感的和體操式的那一類，或者是對動物動作和聲音 evision-- themostpervasiveandpersuasive ofmodernmarkedbyrapidchangeandgrowth--is movinginto anewera,aneraofextraordinarysophistication andversatility,whichpromisestoourlives andourworld.Itisanelectronicrevolutionofsorts,madepossiblebythemarriageofevisionandcomputertechnologies.Theword"evision",derivedfromitsGreek(e:distant)andLatin(visio:sight)roots,canliterallybeinterpretedassightfromadistance.Verysimplyput,itworksinthisway:throughasophisticatedsystemof evisionprovidesthecapabilityofconvertinganimage(focusedonaspecialphotoconductiveplatewithinacamera)intoelectronicimpulses,whichcanbesentthroughawireorcable.Theseimpulses,whenfedintoareceiver(evisionset),canthenbeelectronicallyreconstitutedintothatsameimage.evisionismorethanjustanelectronicsystem,however.Itisameansofexpression,aswellasavehicleforcommunication,andasapowerfultoolforreachingotherhuman oftransmission.First,thereevision,whichreachesthemassesthroughbroad-basedairwave evision,whichprovidesfortheneedsofindividualsorspecificinterestgroupsthroughcontrolledtransmissiontechniques. masses.Wearemostfamiliarwithbroadcastevisionbecause ithasbeenwithusforaboutthirty-sevenyearsinaformsimilartowhatexiststoday.Duringthoseyears,ithasbeencontrolled,forthemostpart,bythebroadcastnetworks,ABC,NBC,andCBS,whohavebeenthemajorpurveyorsofinformation,andentertainment.Thesegiantsofbroadcastinghaveshapednotonlyevisionbut ourperceptionofitaswell.Wecometolookuponthepicturetubeasasourceofentertainment,placingourroleinthisdynamicmediumasthepassiveviewer.電視電視--以快速變化與發(fā)展為標志的最普遍、最具有的一項現(xiàn)代技術(shù)，正在步入一個復雜化與多樣化的新時代。這個時代承諾重新塑造我們的生活和我們的世界。這可以稱得上是又一次電子，其關鍵在于電視技術(shù)與計算機技術(shù)的結(jié)合。"來源于希臘語詞根(e：遠)和拉丁語詞根(vision：景象)，可以從字面上理解為來自遠處的景象。圖像(這幅圖像被聚焦在一 機內(nèi)的一塊特殊的光導底片上)換成能經(jīng)過導線或電纜沖信號當這些電子脈沖信號被輸入一部(電視機)時，就可以用電子

影響的強大工具。電視這個領域可以根據(jù)其發(fā)射方式分為兩類。第一類為廣播電視，通過電視信號的寬帶無線電波發(fā)射展現(xiàn)在大利益群體的需要。電視早已成為大眾媒介。我們熟悉廣播電視，因為廣播電視已經(jīng)以類似目前的方式存在了大約37年。 BC、CBS這些廣播控制著，這些廣播一直是、信息和的主要提供者。這些理解。我們漸漸把顯像管看作是的來源，讓自己成為這個生動的媒介的觀眾。07AndrewAndrewCarnegie,knownastheKingofSteel,builtthesteelindustryintheUnitedStates,and,intheprocess,becameoneofthewealthiestmeninAmerica.Hissuccessresultedinpartfromhisabilitytoselltheproductandinpartfromhispolicyofexpandingduringperiodsofeconomicdecline,whenmostofhiscompetitorswerereducingtheirinvestments. progressthroughwork,buthealsofeltstronglythatthewealthy fortunesforthebenefitofsociety.Heopposedcharity,preferring wouldallowothersto helpthemselves."Hewhodiesrich,diesdisgraced,"heoftensaid.AmonghismorenoteworthycontributionstosocietyarethosethattheCarnegieInstituteofPittsburgh,whichhasalibrary,amuseumofarts,andamuseumofnationalhistory.Healsofoundedaschooloftechnologythatisno rtofCarnegie-MellonUniversity.Other giftsaretheCarnegie InternationalPeacetopromoteunderstandingbetweennations,theCarnegieInstituteofWashingtontofundscientificresearch,andCarnegieHalltoprovideacenterforthearts.FewAmericanshavebeenleftuntouchedbyAndrewCarnegie'sgenerosity.Hiscontributionsofmorethanfivemilliondollarsestablished2,500insmallcommunitiesthroughoutthecountryandformedthenucleusofpubliclibrarysystemthatweallenjoy安德魯·卡內(nèi)基被稱作鋼鐵大王的安德魯·卡內(nèi)基在建立了鋼鐵工業(yè)。在這個過程中，他變成了最富有的人之一。他的成功，部分來自于他銷售產(chǎn)品的能力，部分來自于經(jīng)濟時期的擴充策略。在時期，他的多數(shù)對手都在縮減投資?？ㄈ藨撏ㄟ^努力工作來獲得進展，但他也強烈地感到應該運用他們的來為社會謀取福利。他施舍救濟，更愿意提供卡內(nèi)基經(jīng)常說："富有著死去的人死得。"他對社會的較重要的貢獻都以他的名字命名。這些貢獻包括匹茲堡卡內(nèi)基學校。這個學校有一個館，一個美術(shù)館和一個國家歷史博物館；他還創(chuàng)立了一所技術(shù)學校，這所學?，F(xiàn)在是卡內(nèi)基梅隆大學的一部 人的生活。由于他超過五百萬 個館得以建立起來，遍布在各地的小村鎮(zhèn)，形成了我們 的公共館系統(tǒng)的。08AmericanRTheAmericanRevolutionwasnotarevolutioninthesenseofaradicaltotalchange.Itwasnotasuddenand ofthe lateroccurred Significantchangeswereusheredin,buttheywerenotbreathtaking.What happenedwasacceleratedevolutionratheroutrightrevolution.Duringtheitselfpeoplewentonworkingandpraying,marryingandplaying.Mostofthemwerenotdisturbedtheactualfighting,andmanyofthemoreisolatedcommunitiesscarcelyknewthatawarwason.America'sWarofIndependenceheraldedthebirthofthreemodernnations.OnewasCanada,whichreceiveditsfirstinfluxofEnglish-speakingpopulationfromthethousandsofloyalistsfledtherefromtheUnitedStates.AnotherwasAustralia,whichbecameapenalcolonynowthatAmericawasnolongeravailableforprisonersdebtors.Thethird er--theUnitedStates--baseditselfsquarelyonrepublicanprinciples.Yeteventhepoliticaloverturnwasnotsorevolutionaryasonesuppose.Insomestates,notablyConnecticut andRhodeIsland,the self- alreadyofficials,everywhereousted,werereplacedbyahome-grownclass,whichpromptlysoughtalocalsubstituteforkingand其實并不算是一場，因為它并未導致完全的和徹底的變化。這次并不是對政治和社會框架的一次突然和猛烈的 在已經(jīng)是獨立國家的法國和所爆發(fā)的那樣。帶來了重大的變化，但并非翻天覆地，所發(fā)生的只是進化 拜、結(jié)婚、玩耍。多數(shù)人并沒有受到實際戰(zhàn)斗的嚴重影響。許多較閉塞的社區(qū)對這場 獨立宣布了三個現(xiàn)代國家的誕生，

的第一大批講英語的流入人口來自于成千上萬英王的效忠者，這些人從 。另一個國家是澳大利 (注：獨立前，英國 )。第三個國家就 性。在一些州，特別是康涅狄格和羅德島，基本上只四處被的英國 都被本土的所替代，這個階級迅速地以地方權(quán)力機關來替代國王和議會。09Ifby"suburb"ismeantanurbanmarginthatgrowsmorerapidlythanalreadydevelopedinterior,theprocess emergenceoftheindustrialcityinthesecondquarterofthecentury.Beforethatperiodthecitywasasmallhighlycompactclusterwhichpeoplemovedaboutonfootandgoodswereconveyedbyhorseandcart.Butthe waterwaysandnearrailheadsattheedgesandhousingwasneededforthethousandsofpeopledrawnbytheprospectofemployment.Intime,thefactoriesweresurroundedbyproliferatingtownsofapartments older,maincities.Asadefenseagainstthisencroaentandtoenlargetaxbases,thecitiesappropriatedtheirindustrialneighbors. mostofPhiladelphiaCounty.SimilarmunicipalmaneuverstookplaceinandinNewYork.Indeed,most citiesoftheUnitedsuchstatusonlybyincorporatingthecommunitiesalongtheirborders.Withtheaccelerationofindustrialgrowthcameacuteurbancrowdingpanyingsocialstress--conditionsthat proportionswhen,in1888,thefirstcommercially fewyears trolleyswereretiredandelectricstreetcarnetworks connectedeverymajorurbanarea,fosteringawaveof transformedthe compactindustrial intoadispersedmetropolis.Thisfirstphaseofmass-scalesuburbanization Middle forhomeownershipinneighborhoodsfarfromtheaginginnercityweresatisfiedbythedevelopersofsingle-family郊區(qū)的發(fā)展如果"郊區(qū)"指的是比已建好的城市發(fā)展更為迅速的城市邊緣地帶，那么郊區(qū)化可以說始于1825年至1850年工在這之前，城市只是高度密集的小聚居群。在其中，人們步行走動，商品靠馬車來運送。但是建于18世紀三四十年的成千上萬的人們需要住房。稅的地域范圍，城市吞并了工業(yè)化的地帶，比如1854年費城的城區(qū)就兼并了費縣的絕大部分地區(qū)。相似的也發(fā)生在芝加哥和紐約。今天很多的大城市其實就是靠吞并它們相伴而來的社會壓力。當1888年第一條商業(yè)上成功的電氣化鐵軌被制造出來時，壓力開始 的程度。幾年之而形成了一種郊區(qū)化的潮流，即密集的工業(yè)城市轉(zhuǎn)變成了分散的 的出現(xiàn)進一步加強了第一波大規(guī)模郊區(qū)化。 地區(qū)的開發(fā)者滿足了他們的愿望。10TypesofStandardusageincludesthosewordsandexpressionsunderstood,andacceptedbyamajorityofthespeakersofalanguageinregardlessofthelevelofformality.Assuch,thesewordsandarewell definedandlistedinstandarddictionaries.Colloquialisms,theotherhand,arefamiliarwordsandidiomsthatareunderstoodbyallspeakersofalanguageandusedininformalspeechorwriting,butconsideredappropriateformoreformalsituations.Almostallidiomaticexpressionsarecolloquiallanguage.Slang,however, wordsandexpressionsunderstoodbyalargenumberofspeakersbutnotacceptedgood,formalusageby themajority.Colloquialexpressions slangmay foundinstandarddictionariesbutwillbesoidentified.BothcolloquialusageandslangaremorecommoninthaninColloquialspeechoftenpassesintostandardspeech.Someslangpassesintostandardspeech,butother

popularityfollowedbyobscurity.Insomecases,themajoritynever slangphrasesbut neverthelessretainsthemintheirmemories.Everygenerationseemstorequireitsownsetofwordstodescribefamiliarobjectsandevents.Ithasbeenpointedoutbyanumberoflinguiststhatthreeculturalconditionsarenecessaryforthecreationofalargebodyofslangexpressions.First,theintroductionandacceptanceofnewobjectsand withalargenumberofsubgroups;third,associationamongthesubgroupsandthemajorityFinally,itisworthnotingthattheterms"standard""colloquial"and"slang"existonlyas language.Onlyatinynumberofthespeakersofanylanguagewillbeawarethattheyusingcolloquialorslangexpressions.Mostspeakers ofEnglishduringappropriatesituations,selectanduseallthreetypesof語言的類型標準用法包括那些為使用這種語言的大多數(shù)人在任何場合下理解、使用和接受的詞和短語，而不論該場合是否正式。這些詞和短語的意義已很確定并被列入了標準詞典中。相反，俗語是 使用，卻不適用于更正規(guī)的一些場合的詞和短語。幾乎所有的習語指的是為很多講這種語言的人理解但大多數(shù)人不把它們列入好的、正式用法之內(nèi)的詞和短地被接受為標準用法。一些俚語也變之不用了。有時候，多數(shù)人從來不接受某些俚語，但是他們把這 每一代人似乎都需要獨有的一套詞匯來描述熟知的物體和事件。很多語言學家，大量俚語的形成需要三個"、"俗語"和"俚語"這些術(shù)語只是對研究語言的才有用的抽?能夠他們是在使用俗語或俚語。講英語的多數(shù)人能夠在當?shù)膱龊现羞x擇使用所有這三種語言類型。11Archaeologyisasourceofhistory,notjustahumbleauxiliaryArchaeologicaldataarehistoricalsintheirownright,notillustrationstowrittentexts.Justasmuchasanyotherhistorian,archaeologiststudiesandtriestoreconstitutetheprocessthathascreatedthehumanworldinwhichwelive--andusourselvesinsofarweareeachcreaturesofour andsocialdataareallchangesinthematerialworldresultingfromhumanactionmoresuccinctly,thefossilizedresultsofhuman behavior.Thesumtotaloftheseconstituteswhatmaybecalledthearchaeologicalrecord.This consequencesof superficialcontrastbetweenhistoryandthemorefamiliarkindbaseduponwrittenNotallhumanbehaviorfossilizes.ThewordsIutterandyouhearasvibrationsintheairarecertainlyhuman changesinthematerialandmaybeofgreathistoricalsignificance.Yettheyleavenosortoftraceinthearchaeologicalrecordsunlesstheyarecapturedbyadictaphoneorwrittendownbyaclerk.Themovementoftroopsonthebattlefieldmay"changethecourseofhistory,"butthisisequallyephemeralfromthearchaeologist'sstandpoint.Whatisperhapsworse,organicmaterialsareperishable.Everythingmadeofwood,hide,linen,grass,hair,andsimilarmaterialswilldecayandvanishindustinafewyearsorcenturies,saveunderveryexceptionalconditions.Inarelativelybriefperiodthearchaeologicalrecordisreducedtomere stone,bone,glass,metal,andearthenware.Stillmodernarchaeology,byapplyingappropriatetechniques aidedbyaluckyfindsfrompeat-bogs,deserts,andfrozensoils,isabletofillupgooddealofthe考古學是歷史學的一個來源，而不是地位卑微的輔助學學資料本身也是一種歷史文獻，而不僅僅是文字資料的例證。正象任何一位歷史學家那樣，考古學家研究并盡力去重構(gòu)個過程。這個過程創(chuàng)造了我們生活的人類世界，也創(chuàng)造了我們自我們都是我們所處的時代和社會環(huán)境的產(chǎn)物?？脊艑W的資料

幾個世紀以后，會在塵土中腐爛并。在短時期內(nèi)，能留下考古記錄的東西也都會 玻璃、金屬和陶器的碎片。然而，現(xiàn) 的一些幸運發(fā)現(xiàn)的輔助下，能夠填充這個空缺的很大部分。12FromBostontoLosAngeles,fromNewYorkCitytoChicagotoDallas,museumsareeitherplanning,building,orwrapupwholesaleprograms.Theseprogramsalreadyhaveradicallyalteredfacadesandplansorareexpectedtodosointhenot-too-distantInNewYorkCityalone,sixmajorinstitutionshavespreadupandouttheairspaceandneighborhoodsaroundthemorarepreparingtodoso.Thereasonsforthisconfluenceofactivityarecomplex,butoneisaconsiderationeverywhere--space.Withcollectionsexpanding,theneedsandfunctionsofmuseumschanging,emptyspacehas averypreciousProbablynowhereinthecountryisthismoretruethanattheMuseumofArt,whichhasneededadditionalspacefordecadesandreceiveditslastsignificantfacelifttenyearsago.Becauseofthecrunch,theArtMuseumhas eincreasinglycautiousin passingupopportunitiestostrengthenitsDeaccessing--orsellingoff--worksofarthastakenonnewbecauseofthemuseum'sspaceproblems. curatorshavebeenforcedtojugglegalleryspace,rotatingonemasterpieceintopublicviewwhileanotherissenttostorage.Despitetheclearneedforadditionalgalleryandstoragespace,"themuseumhasnoplan,noplan breakoutof velopeinfifteenyears,"accordingtoPhiladelphiaMuseumofArt's人類行為所造成的物質(zhì)變化。更簡潔地說， 了的人類行為。博物館從波士頓到洛杉機，從紐約到芝加哥、到達拉斯，所有這些變化的總和構(gòu)成了我們所說的考古學記錄。這些記錄自有其當膚淺的對比。并不是所有的人類行為都留下化石。我說的話，在考古學中未留下絲毫痕跡，除非有人用機錄下來或文書把

者正在完成大規(guī)模的擴建計劃。這些計劃或者已經(jīng)根本性地改變了博物館門面與展廳的設計，或者預期在不久的將來會這樣做。單單在紐約市，六個主要機構(gòu)或者已經(jīng)向空中和周圍擴展，或者因素是普遍考慮的空間問題。變成了一項非常珍貴的商品。在我國，也許沒有任何其他 的行動可能"改變歷史的進程"，但從考古學的觀點來看費城藝術(shù)博物館更符合這個事實這同樣是難以捕捉的；可能更糟的是，多數(shù)有機物質(zhì)會腐爛。任何

重大的翻新。由于 新的重要意義。博物館 13SkyscrapersandInthelate1960's,manypeopleinNorthAmericaturnedtheirtoenvironmentalproblems,andnew werewidelycriticized.Ecologistspointedoutth lusteroftallbuildingsinacityoftenoverburdenspublictransportationandparkinglotcapacities.Skyscrapersarealsolavishconsumers,andwasters,ofelectriconerecentyear,theadditionof17millionsquarefeetofskyscraperofficespaceinNewYorkCityraisedthepeakdailydemandfor 120,000kilowatts--enoughtosupplytheentirecityofAlbany,York,foraGlass-walledskyscraperscanbeespeciallywasteful.Theheatloss

始使面上釉的玻璃鑲板和涂上了金色或銀色反光薄膜的反光建筑物產(chǎn)生影響。摩天大樓也對城市的衛(wèi)生設施造成了沉重的壓單單紐約市的二個世界貿(mào)易中心大樓如果完全被占滿的話，每年就會產(chǎn)生2，250，000加侖的污水。這相當于康涅狄格州的斯有14ARareFossilThepreservationofembryosandjuvenilesisarateoccurrenceinthefossilrecord.Thetiny,delicateskeletonsareusuallyscatteredbyscavengersordestroyedbyweathering beforetheycan Ichthyosaurshadahigher chanceof beingpthanterrestrialcreaturesbecause,asmarineanimals,theytendedtoliveinenvironmentslesssubjecttoerosion.Still,theirfossilizationrequiredasuiteoffactors:aslowrateofdecayofsofttissues,littlescavengingbyotheranimals,alackofswiftcurrentsandwavestoandcarryawaysmallbones,andfairlyrapidburial.Givengain)throughawallofhalf-inchplateglasssimorethanten thatthroughatypicalmasonrywallfilledwithinsulationboard.To thestrainonheatingandair-conditioningequipment,buildersofskyscrapershavebeguntousedouble-glazedpanelsof glassescoatedwithsilveror goldmirrorfithatreduceaswellas However,mirror-walledtemperatureofthesurroundingairandaffectneighboringbuildings.Skyscrapersputaseverestrainonacity'ssanitationfacilities,too.Iffullyoccupied,thetwoWorldTrade CentertowersinNewYorkCitywouldalonegenerate2.25milliongallonsofrawsewageeachyear--asmuchasacitythesizeofStanford,Connecticut,whichhasapopulationofmore109,60年代后期，許多人把注意力轉(zhuǎn)向了環(huán)境問題，那些嶄新的玻璃鋼摩天大樓受到了廣泛的批評。生態(tài)學家，城市中密集的建筑經(jīng)常給公共交通與停車場的承載能力造成過重的負擔。摩天大樓還是電能的過度消費者與浪費者。最近的某一年，紐約市摩天寫字樓1，700萬英尺辦公面積的增加使電能的最高日需求量提高了120，000千瓦。這樓特別地浪費。墻所允許的熱量損失(或增加)的十倍以上。

interestingcaseforysis.Theichthyosaurremainsarefound marineshalesdepositedabout190millionyearsago.Overtheyears,thousandsofspecimensofmarinereptiles,fishandinvertebrateshaverecoveredfromtheserocks.Thequalityofpreservationiswhatisevenmore pIchthyosaurswithembryoshavebeenreportedfrom6differentlevelsoftheshaleinasmallareaaroundHolzmaden,suggestingthataspecificwasusedbylargenumbersofichthyosaursrepeatedlyoverembryosare quiteadvancedintheirphysicaldevelopment;theirforexample,arealreadywellformed.Onespecimenis inthebirthc .Inaddition,theshalecontainstheremainsofmanythatarebetween20and30inchesWhyaretheresomanypregnantfemalesandyoungatHolzmadenwhentheyaresorareelsewhere?Thequality quarryoperationshave beencarriedoutcarefully awarenessofthevalueofthefossils.Butthesefactorsdonotaccountfortheinterestingquestionofhowtherecametobesuchaconcentrationofpregnantichthyosaursinaparticularplaceveryclosetotheirtimeofgivingbirth.罕見的化石記錄胚胎與幼體被保存下來在化石記錄中是少見的事情。微小纖細的骨骼通常在前就被食腐肉的動物拆散了，或魚龍比起陸地的動物有更大的幾率被保存下來，因為它們作為海洋動物常腐蝕性較小的環(huán)境中。但是它們的需要一系列因素：軟組織的腐爛速度緩慢，很少被其他動物殘食，缺少混雜、沖走小骨頭的快速水流和波浪，以及相當快當這些因素存在時，某些地區(qū)就會變成一個充滿保存完好的魚龍人們在黑色的、含瀝青的海洋頁巖中發(fā)現(xiàn)了約19，000下來的魚龍化石以及無脊椎動物的標本。的魚龍化石數(shù)目。在獲爾茲梅登附近一個小地區(qū)的六個不同的頁化石。這表明大量的魚龍經(jīng)年累月重復使用一個特定的地點。那些胚胎已經(jīng)發(fā)育得相當完整了。比如，它們的蹼槳已經(jīng)完全形成有一個標本甚至被保存在產(chǎn)道中。而且，那塊頁巖包含著很多在20到30英寸之間的新生幼體的化石。為什么在其他地方那么稀少孕雌獸和幼體在獲爾茲梅登卻那么多呢因為其保存質(zhì)量幾乎舉世無雙，工作的進行一直是一絲不茍的。個有趣的問題：為什么在一個特定的地點會如此集中地出現(xiàn)即將15TheNobelForthelast82years,Sweden'sNobelAcademyhasdecidedwhowilltheNobelPrizeinLiterature,thereby determiningwho fromthegreatandtheneargreattotheimmortal.ButtodaytheAcademyiscomingunderheavycriticismbothfromthewithoutandfromcontendthattheselectionofthewinnersoftenhaslesstodowithtruewritingabilitythanwiththepeculiarinternalpoliticsoftheAcademyofSwedenitself.AccordingtoIngmarBjorksten,theculturaleditoroneofthecountry'stwomajornewspapers,theprizecontinuesto"whatpeoplecallaverySwedishexercise:reflectingSwedishtastes."AcademyhasdefendeditselfagainstsuchchargesofprovincialisminselectionbyassertingthatitsphysicaldistancefromthegreatcapitalsoftheworldactuallyservestoprotecttheAcademyfrominfluences.Thismaywellbetrue,butcriticsrespondthat

distancemayalsoberesponsiblefortheAcademy'sinabilitytoperceiveaccurayauthentictrendsintheliteraryworld.Regardlessofconcernsovertheselectionprocess,however,itseemstheprizecontinuetosurviveboth asanindicatoroftheliteraturethatwehighlypraise,andasanelusivegoalthatwritersseek.Iffornootherreason,theprizewillcontinuetobedesirableforthefinancialrewards panyit;notonlyisthecashprizeitselfconsiderable,butitalsodramaticallyincreasessalesofanauthor'sbooks.過去的82年里，瑞典的決定了誰將獲得文學獎，因此也就決定了誰將從偉大或近乎偉大榮升為不朽。但在今天，該卻遭到了評選內(nèi)外的猛烈批評。批評 政治。按照瑞典兩家主要報紙之一的文化版編輯IngmarBjorksten 學之都相距遙遠，實際上使 這也許是對的，但批評者們反駁說，也正因為相距如此遙遠，該達到卻又會不斷追逐的目標。地增加一個作家的著作的銷量。16TheWarbetweenBritainandInthelateeighteenthcentury,battlesragedinalmosteverycornerofEurope,aswellasintheMiddleEa