陳新仁英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)實(shí)用教程課后答案

1答案CheckyourunderstandingStatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.Thereisuniversalagreementabouttheoriginoflanguage.【答案】FPetdogscanspeakhumanlanguage.【答案】FAllhumaninfantscanspeaksomelanguage.【答案】FBycreativitywemeanthecreativeuseoflanguageasoftenpracticedbypoets.【答案】FWithdifferentculturestherewillbedifferentlanguages.【答案】FNotallusesoflanguagearemeanttoconveynewinformation.【答案】TIn-ClassActivities-LanguageII,like-yuyanIIinChinese,isusedfordifferentmeaningsindifferentcontexts,asshownbelow:Chineseisalanguage.Linguisticsisthesystematicstudyoflanguage.e.BothJaneandJohnlikeShakespeare'slanguage.d.thelanguageofbeesAskWhatdoes-languageIImeanineachofthecontexts?Key:a.anaturallanguage;languageinparticular.ahuman-specifictoolforcommunication;languageingeneral.individualstyleoflanguageuse.ametaphoricalwayofreferringtobees*systemofcommunication.Isthereanyothercontextinwhichtheuseofthewordmeanssomethingelse?Key:Yes.Example:languageforthecomputerlikeC+.2.Thereisawell-knownstoryintheBiblethatreflectstheimportanceoflanguageinhumansociety.AccordingtotheOldTestament,mankindspokeonlyonelanguageuntilNimrodbegantobuildatowerthatwastoreachheaven.TheLordsaid,-Behold,theyareonepeople,andtheyhaveallonelanguage,andnothingthattheyproposetodowillnowbeimpossiblefbrthem.Come,letusgodown,andthereconfusetheirlanguage,thattheymaynotunderstandeachother4sspeech.IIAskWhatiftherewerenolanguage?Key:Iftherewerenolanguage,humanbeingscouldnotcommunicatewitheachother,theexperienceofgreatpersonsandtheprocessofhistorycouldnotbedocumented.Allinall,withoutlanguage,thesocietycannotmoveforward.Whatiftherewereonlyonelanguagetheworldover?Key:Itwouldbemuchmoreconvenientforhumanbeingstocommunicatewitheachother;however,ontheotherhand,therecouldnotbesuchaprosperousdevelopmentofdifferentcultures.WhatcanwelearnfromthisBiblestory?Key:Languageispowerfulasatoolofhumancommunication.3.Thecourseoflinguisticsisaimedatbringingourconsciousattentiontolanguage,somethingwithwhichweareveryfamiliarandwhich,paradoxically,wefindstrange.Forinstance,languageissaidtobecreative.Considerthefollowingtwostatements:twoIlearnedanewwordyesterday.Ilearnedanewsentenceyesterday.AskDoyouthinkthetwostatementsareequallyprobable,andifnot,whynot?Key:(a)ismorelikelythan(b),sinceasthebasicunitofmeaning,thewordcanoccurindependentlyinlanguageisfiniteinnumber,whereasascomposedofwords,thesentence,thoughisalmostinfiniteinnumber,ismadepossiblebyourknowledgeofvocabularyandgrammar.Wecanalwaysproduceandunderstandsentencesthatwenevercomeacrossbefore.Inthatsense,nosentenceisabsolutelynew.Inwhatcontextdowemakethesecondstatement?Key:Whenwefocusourattentiononthemeaningofasentenceorwhenweareconcernedwiththeformofasentenceasfoundinalanguageclass.ThefollowingEnglishwordsarewhatwecallonomatopoeicwords,wordsthatarecharacterizedbyanaturalcorrespondencebetweentheirphysicalproperty(likesoundorform)andtheircontentormeaning:bang;bark;crash;hissAskArethereonomatopoeicwordsinChinese?Key:Yes.eg“嘩啦”、“撲通”、“喀嚓”.Doestheexistenceofonomatopoeicwordsoverthrowtheclaimthatlanguageisarbitrary?Key:No.OnomatopoeicwordsaccountforaverylimitedpercentageinthevocabularyofalanguageThearbitrarynatureoflanguagedoesnotsuggestthatindividualscanusealanguagearbitrarily.Infact,oncethemembersofacommunityagreeonthemeaningofwords,theyaresupposedtoabidebytheconvention.Lookatthefollowingcartoon:AskCanonereallyinventalanguageofone'sown?Key:No.Ifnot,why?Key:Alanguagecomesintobeingandisusedbyconventionoragreementamongitsspeakers.6.Beforethemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,theoriesofthebeginningoflanguagewerewidelydiscussed.Accordingtotheseearlytheories,manwascreatedalmostinstantaneouslyandspeechwasprovidedtohimasadivinegiftatthemomentofcreation.SogoesthestoryoftheGardenofEden.GodcreatedAdamandspeechsimultaneously.GodspokewithAdamandAdamansweredhim.ThelanguagetheyusedwasHebrew.AndreasKemke,aSwedishphilologist,assertedthatinthegardenofEden,GodspokeSwedish,AdamspokeDanish,andtheserpentspokeFrench.GoropiusBecanus,aDutchtheorist,assertedthatthelanguageoftheGardenwasDutch.TheEgyptiansconsideredthemselvestheoldestcivilization,andthereforetheoriginallanguagewasEgyptian.Ontheassumptionthatbabies,ifleftalone,willgrowupspeaking-theoriginalIIlanguage,Psammetichus(6B.C.)hadtwobabiestakenatrandomfromanordinaryfamilyandgiventoaservanttoraise.Heorderedtheservantnottospeakawordtothebabies.Whentheyweretwoyearsold,thechildrenonedayabruptlygreetedtheservantwith-Bekos!IITheservantimmediatelyreportedthistoPsammetichus.Thekingcheckedwithhiscounselors,whoinformedhimthat-bekosIImeant-breadIIinPhrygian.Sointrue-scientificIIspirit,PsammetichusannouncedthatPhrygian was the original language.AskIsthereanybasicflawinthisexperiment?Key:Theprocessisnotstrictlycontrolled.Theremayhavebeensomecoincidence.Thesamplesizeistoosmallfortheexperimenttobevalid.Doyouthinkwereallycananswerthequestionaboutthebeginningoflanguage?Key:No,atleastinthepresentconditionwhere/whenwecannotperformexperimentsonthehumanbrain,thekeyorganofspeech.Belowaresamplesofspeechfromchildrenatthreedifferentstagesintheiracquisitionprocess.ChildA:Youwanttoeat?Ican'tseemybook.Whyyouwakemeup?ChildB:Wherethosedogsgoed?Youdidn'teatsupper.Doeslionswalk?ChildC:Nopictureinthere.Wheremommaboot?Havesome?AskCanyouidentifythemostlikelyorder(fromleasttomostadvanced)ofthesesamples?Key:C—B-AWhatfeaturesineachchild'sutterancescanyouuseasevidencetosupportyourordering?Key:ChildA:goodsyntaxexceptforimproperquestionform.ChildB:visibledevelopmentofsyntax;overgeneralizationChildC:Notmuchsyntax;two-wordutterances;telegraphicsentences(sentencesthatcontainonlycontentwordsbutlackfunctionwords)Thefollowingdata(fromFromkinandRodman1983)mightgivesomehintsaboutfirstlanguageacquisition:Episode1Adult:He'sgoingout.Child:Hegoout.Adult:That'sanold-timetrain.Child:Old-timetrain.Adult:Adam,saywhatIsay:WherecanIputthem?Child:WhereIcanputthem?Episode2Child:Myteacherholdedthebabyrabbitsandwepattedthem.Adult:Didyousayyourteacherheldthebabyrabbits?Child:Yes.Adult:Whatdidyousayshedid?Child:Sheholdedthebabyrabbitsandwepattedthem.Adult:Didyousaysheheldthemtightly?Child:No,sheholdedthemloosely.AskItisoftenassumedthatchildrenimitateadultsinthecourseoflanguageacquisition.Canimitationaccountfortheaboveproductiononthepartofthechild?Key:Itcanaccountforsome,butcannotaccountforall.Thereiscounterevidenceagainsttheassumption,liketheovergeneralization-go-edIIfor-wentII.Whatdistinguishesthechild'sproductionfromthatoftheadult?Key:Overgeneralizationof-edIIforthepasttenseasshownby-holdedII.Anothertheoryofchildlanguageacquisitionarguesthatchildrenlearntoproduce"correct*'sentencesbecausetheyarepositivelyreinforcedwhentheysaysomethingrightandnegativelyreinforcedwhentheysaysomethingwrong.Observethefollowingdata(ibid.)andanswerthequestionsthatfollow:Child:Nobodydon'tlikeme.Mother:No,say-NobodylikesmeII.Child:Nobodydon'tlikeme.(dialoguerepeatedeighttimes)Mother:Now,listencarefully;say-NobodylikesmeII.Child:Oh,nobodydon'tlikesme.AskHowdoadultsreinforcetheprocessofchildren'sacquisitionasexemplifiedhere?Key:Theyuseexplicitcorrection.Dochildrenknowwhattheyaredoingwrongly?Key:Notexactly.Doadultssucceedintheirreinforcement?Key:Notalways,atleast.Howshouldwetreatthe"mistakes"thatchildrenmakewhileacquiringtheirmothertongue?Key:Wemayignorethemsometimes,althoughsomeamountofreinforcementmayturnouttobehelpful.Somescholarssuggestthatchildrenareabletolearnlanguagebecauseadultsspeaktotheminaspecial-simplifiedIIlanguagesometimescalledmotherese,care-takerese,orchilddirectedspeech(CDS)(moreinformally,babytalk).Inourcultureadultsdotypicallytalktoyoungchildreninaspecialway.Wetendtospeakmoreslowlyandmoreclearly,weexaggerateourintonation,andsentencesaregenerallyshortandsimple.AskDochildrenlearnthroughstructuredorsimplifiedinput,assuggested?Key:Notalways.Thereisevidenceforbothsides.Canyouoffersomeexamplesrepresentingthewayadultstalktoinfants?Key:Mothereseischaracterizedbyshortersentences,higherpitch,exaggeratedintonation,higherproportionofcontentwordstofunctionwords,simplesyntax,moreinterrogativesandimperatives,morerepetitions.Yetitisnotsyntacticallysimpler.Rather,itmayincludesyntacticallycomplexsentencessuchasquestions:Doyouwantyourjuicenow?Negativeswithtagquestions:Wedon7wanttohurthim,dowe?Indeed,itisfortunatethatmothereseisnotsyntacticallyrestricted.Ifitwere,childrenmightnothavesufficientinformationtoextracttherulesoftheirlanguage.Notonlyaremanylanguagesdyingtoday,manydialectsarealsodisappearingfromtheplanet.Forexample,accordingtoareportoncecirculatedontheInternet,manyparentsdiscouragetheirchildrenfromspeakingtheirlocaldialect.TheywouldrathertheirchildrentookholdofeverychancetolearnEnglish,becausethelatterwillgivethemanedgeinfuturecompetition.AskWhatmeasuresdoyousuggestforprotectingdialectsaswellaslanguages?Key:Ithinkthemostimportantmeasureisthatgovernmentshouldputforwardsomepoliciestoimprovethestatusofdialects;thentheareashouldpaymoreattentiontoeconomicdevelopment,iftheeconomythereisadvanced,thedialectthereisalsopopular,likeCantoneseandsoon.Doyouthinkthatsomedaypeopleallovertheworldwillspeakonlyonelanguage,orsomedaydialectwillceasetoexist?Key:Idon'tthinkso.Becauselanguageisaveryimportantsymbolofonenation,everycountrypaymuchattentiontospreadtheinfluenceoftheirlanguageintheworld,theyareunwillingtogiveuptheirownlanguage.Naturallanguageshavealotincommon.Thecommonpropertiesthatallnaturallanguagessharearetermed-universalsII.Herearesomeofthem:Whereverhumansexist,languageexists.Thevocabularyofanylanguagecanbeexpandedtoincludenewwordsfornewconcepts.Alllanguageschangethroughtime.Allgrammarscontainrulesfortheformationofwordsandsentencesofasimilarkind.Similargrammaticalcategories(forexample,nouns,verbs)arefoundinalllanguages.AskArethereanyuniversalsthatyouthinkalllanguagessharebutarenotmentionedhere?Key:E.g.Alllanguageshaveinternalstructures.Alllanguageshavenumerical.ExerciseTask1ReferenceSearchFindinthelibraryoronlinesomeinformationaboutthefollowingthemes:EsperantophaticcommunionFerdinanddeSaussurelanguageacquisitiondevice(LAD)InnateHypothesisKey:(!)Esperantoisthemostwidelyspokenconstructedinternationalauxiliarylanguage.ItsnamederivesfromDoktoroEsperantowhichtanslatesas-onewhohopesII.。phaticcommunionisoneonlyfunctionistoperformasocialtask,asopposedtoconveyinginformation.0FerdinanddeSaussurewassSwisslinguistandsemioticianwhoseideaslaidafoundationformanysignificantdevelopemntsbothinlinguisticsandsemiologyinthe20thcentury.Heiswidelyconsideredoneofthefatherof20th-centurylinguisticsandoneoftwomajorfathersofsemiotics'semiology.languageacquisitiondevice(LAD)0InnateHypothesisisalinguistictheoryoflanguageacquisitionwhichholdsthatatleastsomelinguisticknowledgeexistsinhumansatbirth.Factsaboutthecomplexityofhumanlanguagesystems,theuniversalityoflanguageacquisition,andthefacilitythatchildrendemonstrateinacquiringthesesystemsandthecomparativeperformanceofadultsinattemptingthesametaskareallcommonlyinvokedinsupport.Theideathattheremaybeanagebywhichthislearningmustbeaccomplishedisknownasthecriticalperiodhypothesis.Task2TermDefinitionDifferentlinguistsmayofferdifferentdefinitions,ascitedbelow.Howarethedefinitionsdifferent?Searchforatleasttwomoredefinitions.EdwardSapir:Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.NoamChomsky:FromnowonIwillconsideralanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.Key:Theabovedifferentversionsofdefinitionswhicharecombinedwillhelpmetounderstandthetermsmoreclearly,sincethedifferentversionsofdefinitionsgivemealotofinformationfromdifferentaspects,whichmakemetoknowevendetailsofthetermsTask3StudyQuestionsWhatdoyouthinkisessentialtotheemergenceoflanguage?Key:Theexistenceofsocialactivities;theneedtoexpressdiverseideas,emotions,etc.;theneedtocommunicateideastodistantplaces;etc.Canourpetslearnhumanlanguages?Whyorwhynot?Key:No.Theyaregeneticallynotendowedwiththecapacity.Whatroledoesbodylanguageplayinlanguagecommunication?Key:Itplaysaveryimportantroleinlanguagecommunication.Sometimesitismucheasierandconvenienttousebodylanguagethanusespokenlanguage.Sometimesitcanexpressmeaningsthatvocallanguagecannotexpress.Itcanalsoexpressintimacybetweenclosefriends.Naturallyoccurring-experimentsIIwithso-called-wolf-chiklrenII,-MowgliII,-bear-childrenIIor-monkey-childrenIIandothersuchferalyoungstershavebeenwidelyreportedforhundredsofyears.Noneofthesechildrencouldspeakorunderstandspeechand,indeed,mosteffortstoteachthemlanguageendedinfailure.Howwouldyouaccountforthefailure?Key:Thelanguageacquisitiondevicehastobetriggeredbeforeacertainage(thatofpuberty).Sufficientexposetoalanguageenvironmentattherighttimeisessentialtolanguageacquisition.5.ThefollowingaresomeinstancesofusingEnglishforcommunication.WhatspecificfunctiondoeseachuseofEnglishserveinthefollowingpictures?'/'"Ct，IO <n5.ThefollowingaresomeinstancesofusingEnglishforcommunication.WhatspecificfunctiondoeseachuseofEnglishserveinthefollowingpictures?'/'"Ct，IO <n9ofnof?oxportnwsniol*roKey:Informative(intheformofcommanding).Directive(Advertisingintheformofrequesting).Directive(Persuadingintheformofthreatening).Directive(Recruiting).Iconicityoflanguageisanaspectoflanguagewhereformechoesmeaning.Onomatopoeia,alsoknownas-soundsymbolismII,isonetypeoficonicity.Someresearchershavefoundotherevidenceoficonicity.Forexample,wordsbeginningwiththesoundcombinationsl-inEnglishoftenhaveanunpleasantsense,asinslithering,slimy,slugs.Herearesomequestions:Isthe-unpleasantIIsenseactuallytrueofall,orevenmost,wordsbeginningwithsl-inEnglish?Key:No,itisn'ttrueofall,maybemostofthemaretrue.Arethereanyothersoundsorsoundcombinationsthatyouassociatewithparticularmeanings?Key:OmitHowaboutthevowelsoundsinwordsthatidentifynear-to-speakerconcepts(this,near,here)versusfar-from-speakerconcepts(that,far,there)?Whatisthedifference?IsitageneralpatterndistinguishingtermsforthingsthatarenearversusfarinEnglish?WhataboutthecaseinChinese?Key:Frontvowelsfornear-speakerconcepts;centralorbackvowelsforfar-from-speakerconcepts.ThereseemstobeasimilarkindofpatterninChinese.C.f.近jin/遠(yuǎn)yuan；這zhe/那naInmanyoftheworld'slanguagesthereareso-callednurserynamesforparents.InEnglish,forexample,correspondingtothewordmotheristhenurserynamemama,andforfatheronefindsdadaandpapa.Thereisremarkablesimilarityacrossdifferentlanguagesintheformofthesenurserynamesfbrparents.Forexample,inChineseandNavajomacorrespondstoEnglishmama.Whydoyouthinkthatthisisthecase?Key:Bilabialsarelearnedandproducedfirstbecausetheyaretheeasiest.Thefollowingtwotranscriptions(takenfromBellugi,1970)arefragmentsofconversationsbetweenthesamemotherandchild.Thefirstonetookplacewhenthechildwas24months,andthesecondthreemonthslater.Eve:Havethat?X￡Comeandsitoverhere.XtNo.youmaynothaveit.Eve:Youcansitdownbyme.ThatwillEve:Montwheremytapioca?makemehappy.Readytoturnit.XLIfsgettingcool.You'llhaveitinjustaXtWe?renotquitereadytoturnthepage.minute.Eve:Yep,weare.Eve:Letmehaveit.XLShutthedoor,wewon?thearherthen.XLWouldyouliketohaveyourlunchrightEve:ThenFraserwon,thearhertoo.Wherenow?he'sgoing?DidyoumakeagreatbigholeEve:Yeah.Mytapiocacool?there"XtYes,it'scool.XtYes,wemadeagreatbigholeinhere;weEve:Yougonnawatchmeeatmylunch?havetogetanewone.XLYeah.I'mgonnawatchyoueatyourlunch.Eve:Ieatingit.XtIknowyouare.Eve:CouldIgetsomeotherpieceofpaper9Whataresomeofthechangeswhichappeartohavetakenplaceinthechild'sabilitytouseEnglishduringthatperiod?Key:Itobservedthatthechangesofchild'sabilitytouseEnglishappeartohavetakenplacefrom2.5to3yearsold.Whatdothesechangessuggestabouttheorderoflanguageacquisition?Key:a.Likethebasicallyproperuseofinterrogativesandthecorrectuseofinflection.b.Completesentencesareacquiredlaterthanellipticalones.Inflectionisacquiredatalatestage.Task4CommentWorkInthiscenturyit(theWhorfianHypothesis)wasgivenspecialattentionthroughtheworkofEdwardSapirand,moreimportantly,BenijaminLeeWhorf.WorkingonAmericanIndianlanguages,especiallyHopi,thelanguageofthePuebloIndiansofArizona,WhorlbecameacutelyawareoftheinadequaciesoftraditionalgrammaticaltechniquesbuiltonIndo-Europeanlanguages,especiallyLatin,Greek,andSanskrit,fordealingwithnon-Indo-Europeanlanguages.ExperienceofAmericanandHopiculturesuggestedtoWhorfthattheculturesandthoughtprocessesweredifferentbecausetheirlanguagesweresodifferent.Thisledhimtoestablish:WhatIhavecalledthe-linguisticrelativityprincipleII,whichmeans,ininformalterms,thatusersofmarkedlydifferentgrammarsarepointedbytheirgrammarstowarddifferenttypesofobservation,andhencearenotequivalentasobserversbutmustarriveatsomewhatdifferentviewsoftheworld.Amoresuccinctversionofthisclaim-Wedissectnaturealonglineslaiddownbyournativelanguage,IIcametobeknownasthe-WhorfianhypothesisII.Languageinfluencesthought,itwasclaimed;mindisinthegripoflanguage.(ElizabethTraugottandMarryPratt,LinguisticsforStudentsofLiterature,p.106)QuestionsDoyouagreewiththecontentionthatlanguagedeterminesthewaywethink?Key:No,Idon'tthinkso.Languageisonlyatoolforpeopletocommunicate;itisnotthekeyfactorthatdeterminethewaywethink.Germanyisacountryrichingreatphilosophers.DoyouthinkthathastodowiththelanguageGermansspeak?Key:No,Idon'tthinkso.Languageisonlyatoolfbrpeopletocommunicate;evenifthereissomerelationbetweenthetwo,therelationisnotthekeyone.Languageacquisitionisacreativeprocess.Childrenarenotgivenexplicitinformationabouttherules,byeitherinstructionorcorrection.Theymustsomehowextracttherulesofthegrammarfromthelanguagetheyheararoundthem,andtheirlinguisticenvironmentdoesnotneedtobespecialinanywayforthemtodothis.Observationsofchildrenacquiringdifferentlanguagesunderdifferentculturalandsocialcircumstancesrevealthatthedevelopmentalstagesaresimilar,possiblyuniversal.Evendeafchildrenofdeafsigningparentsgothroughstagesintheirsigningdevelopmentthatparallelthoseofchildrenacquiringspokenlanguages.Thesefactorsleadmanylinguiststobelievethatchildrenareequippedwithaninnatetemplateorblueprintforlanguage—UniversalGrammar(UG)—andthisblueprintaidsthechildinthetaskofconstructingagrammarforherlanguage.Thisisreferredtoastheinnatenesshypothesis.(VictoriaFromkin,RobertRodmanandNiaHyams,AnIntroductiontoLanguage,pp.347-348)QuestionsDoyouthinktheinborndevicecanworkindependentlyoftheenvironment?Key:No,therearesomechildrenwhogrowupseparatefromhumanbeingscannotspeak.Itmeansthattheinborndevicecannotworkindependentlyoftheenvironment.CollectsomeexamplesfromChineseinfantsthatprovethecreativenatureoflanguageacquisition.Key:Childrenacquirelanguagewithoutspecialinstruction,astimegoing;theycancreatesomewordsorsentencesthattheyhavenotheardbefore.Task5Mini-ProjectRandomlyselecttenmostcommonlyusedwordsandteninfrequentlyusedwordsfromanEnglishvocabularylist.Compareandfindifthereisapossiblecorrespondencebetweenthesizeofwordsandthefrequencyofusage(e.g.themorecommontheword,thesmalleritis).Ifso,canyouworkoutanyplausibleexplanation?Key:Omit2答案CheckyourunderstandingStatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.[i:]and[i]areallophonesofthesamephoneme.【答案】FNotallEnglishphonemeshaveallophones.【答案】TThesamesetofvowelsisusedinalllanguages.【答案】FAllsyllablesmustcontainatleastonevowel.【答案】FThemarkingofwordstressisarbitraryforthemostpartinEnglish.【答案】FEnglishisatonelanguage.【答案】FIn-ClassActivitiesInordertodiscoverthephonemesusedinthesoundsystemofalanguage,scholarsoncedesignedamethodbasedonthenotionofminimalpairs,like-patIIvs.-fat||.Threerequirementswereproposedforidentifyingaminimalpair:(1)thetwowordsaredifferentinmeaning;(2)thetwowordsaredifferentbecauseofjustonephoneme;and(3)thephonemesthatmakethetwowordsdifferentoccurinthesamephoneticenvironment.Byphoneticenvironmentwemeanthesound(s)precedingandthat/thosefollowingit,e.g.thephoneticenvironmentof[I]in[pit]is[p_t]andthatof[P]is[#_it](#standsforawordorsyllableboundary).Thecontrastingsoundsinwordsformingaminimalpairaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution,asin[bit]vs.[beit]and[pit]vs.[bit].AskWhatisthephoneticenvironmentof[t]in[pit]?Key:Arethefollowingpairsofwordsminimalpairs?deskvs.task;leavevs.leakKey:a.No.b.Yes.(li:vvs.li:k)Allophonesastherealizationsofthesamephonemearetechnicallysaidtobeincomplementarydistribution;inotherwords,theyarefoundindifferentphoneticenvironments.Forinstance,theallophonesofthephoneme/!/,clear[1]anddark[?],occurasfollows:Clear[1]:occursbeforevowelsorafterinitialconsonant(s)like/b/,/s/,/k/,/g/,/f/,/P/,/sp/.Dark[?]:occurselsewhere.AskCharacterizehowtheallophonesofthephoneme/k/arecomplementarilydistributed.Key:[kh]ininitialposition;[k]after/s/;[k-?]infinalposition.Isthereanyotherwayofcharacterizingthecomplementarydistributionofclear[1]anddark[?]?Key:[1]beforevowels;[I]elsewhere.Aphonemecanbefurtheranalyzedintoasetofdistinctivefeatures.Forexample,/p/isdefinedascomposedofsuchdistinctivefeaturesas[plosive]+[bilabial]+[breathed]becauseeachofthemcandistinguish/p/fromsomeotherphonemes.However,thepropertyofaspirationcontainedintheallophone[Ph]doesnotdistinguishofmeaningandthereforeisnotadistinctivefeatureinthiscase.AskWhatdistinctivefeaturemakes/f7and/v/different?Key:[voiced).Canyouspecifythedistinctivefeaturesforthefollowingphonemes?/y/;b./k/;c./n/Key:a./y/[fricative]+[voiceless]+[palatal]/k/[velar]+[voiceless]+[plosive]/n/[nasal]+[voiced]+[alveolar]Supposethedistributionof[r]and[1]inthefollowingwordsischaracteristicofKorean:rupi;-rubyII;mul;-waterII;kiri;-roadII;pal;-legII;saram;-personII;soul;-SeoulII;ratio;-radioII;ipalsa;-barberII.(1)Are[r]and[I]incomplementarydistribution?Inwhatenvironmentdoeseachoccur?Key:Yes.[r]occursbeforevowels;[1]occursaftervowels.Dotheyoccurinanyminimalpairs?Key:No.Supposethat[r]and[1]areallophonesofonephoneme.Statetherulethatcanderivetheallophonicforms.Key:[r]islateralizedwhenitoccursaftervowels.Asoundmaychangebyassimilating/copyingafeatureofasequential/neighboringsound;e.g.[ ]isrealizedas[ 1[]and[]respectivelyin-impossibleII,-irresistibleII,and-illegal||Thisiswhatwecalltheassimilationrule.Assimilation,particularlynoticeableinordinaryconversationalspeech,occursinavarietyofcontexts.Forexample,whenyoutellsomeone-IcangoII,theinfluenceofthefollowingvelar[]willalmostcertainlymaketheprecedingnasalsoundIn[]comeoutas[](avelar)ratherthan[](analveolar).Noticealsothatthevowelin-canIIhasakochangedtoschwa[]fromtheisolated-wordversion[]throughtheprocessofweakening.AskCanyougivemoreexamplesofassimilation?Key:compatriot,sing.Canyoufindanyexceptions?Key:input,unbeatable,Canberra.Now,studythefollowingdialectofEnglishcarefully.Thereseemstobeapredictablevariant[ ]ofthediphthong[].1)[bAi]bite;2)[tay]tie3)[rayd]ride;4)[fayl]file5)[taip]type;6)[taym]time7)[lAif|life;8)[rayzlrise(3)Whatphoneticsegmentsconditionthischange?Key:Theconsonantimmediatelyafterthevowel.Iftwosoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherdoesnotcauseachangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Forexample,-economicsIIcanbereadasboth[ _ ]and[_ ].Here,//and//areinfreedistribution.AskCanyougivemoreexamplesoffreevariation?Key:advertisement[advoitismant][adva^izmont];association[asausieijan][osoui'eion]WhydoyouthinksuchaphenomenonexistsinalanguagelikeEnglish?Key:Individualvariationisresponsibleforthisphenomenon.