大學(xué)思辨英語精讀unit2sociologicalinvestigation參考答案

Unit2SociologicalInvestigationTextAPreparatoryWork(1)Experiment:variable,hypothesis,stimulus,controlgroupSurveyResearch:sampling,questionnaire,interview,close-endedquestions,open-endedquestions,codesheet,telephonesurveyFieldResearch:observation,participantAnalysisofExistingData:contentanalysis,statistics(2)Hawthorneeffect:TheHawthorneeffect(alsoreferredtoastheobservereffect)isatypeofreactivityinwhichindividualsmodifyorimproveanaspectoftheirbehaviorinresponsetotheirawarenessofbeingoriginalresearchattheHawthorneWorksinCicero,Illinois,onlightingchangesandworkstructurechangessuchasworkinghoursandbreaktimeswereoriginallyinterpretedbyEltonMayoandotherstomeanthatpayingattentiontooverallworkerneedswouldimproveproductivity.Thisinterpretationwasdubbed“theHawthorneeffect”.(3)(open)TeachingSuggestionYoucanusethedatabanksofthetwointernationalorganizationstocheckouttheworldoranyparticularcountry’sinformationintermsofGDP,population,territoryarea,humandevelopmentindexetc.TheUnitedNations(:datapage:WorldBank(:canalsousethewebsiteoftheStatisticalBureauofChinatocheckoutanystatisticalinformationaboutChina:ReadingUnderstandingthetext1.Thesis:HowSociologyIsDone(Researchmethods/techniquesemployedinsociology)PartIIntroduction

Para(s).1

MainideaSociologyasascienceanditsmainresearchmethodsHowdoyouknowwhat2-9youknow

Authority,tradition,religion,personalexperience,andmysticism.scientificmethodsTheexperiment10-14Itisaresearchtechniqueinwhichtheresearchermanipulatesastimulustotesttheoriesofcauseandeffect.Surveyresearch15-22Itisusedanddesignedtostudysamplesinordertomeasureattitudes,beliefs,values,andbehaviorofparticipants.Fieldresearch 23-29 Itismostlyresemblesourdailycasual observations of andparticipationinsocialbehavior,tounderstandsuchbehavior.Analysisofexisting30-36data

sociologistsanalyzedataoriginallycollectedbyothersbyothersVIIConclusion37Thesisrepeated:Sociologyisasciencebecauseitusesscientificresearchmethods2.“commonsense”:Commonsenseisabasicabilitytoperceive,understand,andjudgethings,whichissharedby(“commonto”)nearlyallpeopleandcanreasonablybeexpectedofnearlyallpeoplewithoutanyneedfordebate.However,manyofthecommonsensebeliefsareactuallylackinginsupportfromscientificevidencesandthereforebiasedandprejudiced.Ordinarypeopleoftendefinetheirrealityandwhattheyknowthroughauthoritativeopinions,traditionalbeliefs,personalexperience,andmysticism(superstition).Themajordifferencesbetweenthiskindof“commonsense”viewknowledgeandtheresults/factsidentifiedthroughscientificmethodsare:theformerarenotbasedonlogicalreasoningandhardevidencesandthereforetendtobesubjectiveandbiasedwhilethelatterarejustopposite.Thethreemajorcomponentsofthescientificmethodaretheory,operationalization,andobservation.Theoryprovidesthefoundationforconceptssothatstatementsabouttherelationshipamongvariablescanbecreated.Operationalizationallowsforthemeasurementofthevariablessothattheymaybeempiricallyexamined.Andobservationinvolvestheactualcollectionofdatatotestthehypothesis.TypesofTypesofSocialContentPhenomenaMeaningsandsymbols Aspectsofculturesuchasnorms,worldviews,andlanguagePractice Variouskindsofbehaviorsuchasvotingbehaviorsormorningrituals(forexample,washingone’sfaceandreadingthedailynewspaper)Episodes Avarietyofevents,includingdivorce,crime,illness,andhowpeoplemayreactduringtimeofdisasters,suchasearthquakes,floods,orthebanningofmusictelevisionvideo(MTV)Encounters Twoormorepeoplemeetingandinteractinginimmediateproximitywithoneanother.AgoodexampleofthisispeopleridinginanelevatorRoles Thepositionspeopleoccupyandthebehaviorassociatedwiththosepositions:occupations,familyroles,ethnicgroupsRelationshipsThekindsofbehaviorshowninpairsorsetsofroles:mother-daughterrelationships,friendships,andsoon.Groups Smallgroups,suchasgangs,athleticteams,andworkgroups.OrganizationsFormalorganizations,suchascorporationsoruniversitiesSettlements Smaller-scale“societies”suchasvillages,ghettos,andneighborhoods(5)Method & briefAdvantages descriptionTheexperimentisaExcellentdevicesforresearchtechniqueintestinghypotheseswhichtheresearcheraboutcauseandeffect

Couldexposesubjectstotheharmmanipulates

a(canberepeatedand

Subjects oftenstimulus—the can be quick in behavedifferentlyindependentvariable—to theoriesofcauseand

identifyingresults)

under observationLaboratoryeffect

experimentsoftenartificial

arehighlySurveyresearchisusedCanstudysamples,Itisnotthebestanddesignedtostudylimitednumbersofstrategyforstudyingsamplesinordertopeoplerepresentingandeviantorundesirablemeasure

attitudes,entiregroupofpeoplebehaviors

or forbeliefs,

values,who share

similargettingatideasandpersonalitytraits,andcharacteristics feelingsthatcannotbehaviorparticipants.

ofCanbedesignedto

easilybereducedtoquestionnaireform.measurebeliefs,personality

attitudes,tostudytraits,individuals and behavior ofthansocialcontexts.participantsFieldresearchisMayinvestigateCannotberepeatedandmostlyresemblesourvarioustypesofsocialappliedtosimilardaily casualphenomena situationsobservationsofand

CanrevealthingsthatThe researchers wouldnototherwisebeparticipantsrelyonattempttounderstandsuchbehavior.

apparentThepresenceofanobserving,

personal perceptionandjudgement,thusmightbebiasedMightsufferfromtheoftheaction(acuteHawthorneeffectobservation)AnalysisofexistingWiderangeofallkindsTheaccuracyofmuchdataisamethodinofdata existingdatamaybewhich

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difficulttoassess.Thepotentialforerrorcollectedbyothers.ItSavingmoneyincludescontentanalysis,theanalysisandhistorical-comparativeanalysis.Evaluationandexploration

anddistortionmeansthat“whatyouseemaynotbewhatyouget.”Anauthorityisaspecialistincertainfieldofknowledgethereforeanauthority,specializedknowledgefromanauthorityiscloserto“truth”,butheisnotaknowing-allfigure,andhemightalsobebiasedinhisattitudetowardsomeissues.Atraditionisabelieforbehaviorpasseddownwithinagrouporsocietywithsymbolicmeaningorspecialsignificancewithoriginsinthepast.Theyarefollowedbyandconsideredrightbycertaingroupofpeople,butcannotappliedtoothergroupswhohavetheirowntradition;andsincetheyareformedandpasseddownfromthepast,theymightnotbeapplicabletothepresentworld.Religionsmaycontainsymbolicstories,whicharesometimessaidbyfollowerstobetrue,thathavethesidepurposeofexplainingtheoriginoflife,theUniverse,andotherthings.Traditionally,faith,inadditiontoreason,hasbeenconsideredasourceofreligiousbeliefs.However,religiousbeliefsmostlylackinempiricalorscientificproof.Personalexperienceisbasedonone’sreallifeandrealityandthereforecloserto“reality”,butitisbasedonanindividual’sencounterandperspectiveonreality,andcannottotallyrepresentthecommonexperiencesharedbyagroupofpeople.MysticismispopularlyknownasbecomingonewithGodortheAbsolute,butmayrefertoanykindofecstasyoralteredstateofconsciousnesswhichisgivenareligiousorspiritualmeaning.Itmayalsorefertotheattainmentofinsightinultimateorhiddentruths,andtohumantransformationsupportedbyvariouspracticesandexperiences.Butitisbasedonreligionorsuperstition,evenfartherawayfrombeingobjectiveandscientific.Sincesociologistsbasetheirresearchandconclusiononempiricalstudywithscientificmethod,itissimilartothedisciplinesofnaturalscience,buttherearetwofactorsthatdifferentiateitfromnaturalsciences.Theobjectofstudyishumanbeingwhocanbeverycomplicatedandchangewithtime.Alsothesociologistsarealsohumanbeingswhocanbesubjectiveorevenbiasedintheirstudy.Inthissense,sociologyisstillnotequaltonaturalscienceinobjectivity.ThehypothesisoftheStanfordprisonexperimentisthatchangeofrolesorenvironmentcauseschangeofhumanbehavior(effect).Theindependentvariableisthetworoles（prisonerandprisonguard）assignedtothe24studentswhoareallrandomlyselectedampling)fromamongtheuniversitystudents,andthedependentvariableistheir(changeof)behavior.First,experimentsareoftennotpossiblebecausetheywouldexposesubjectstothepossibilityofharm.Forexample,whatifaresearcherwantedtoknowwhetherpeoplewhowereabusedaschildrenaremorelikelytoabusetheirchildrenSecond,thesubjectsoftenbehavedifferentlywhentheyareunderscientificobservationfromthewaytheywouldintheirnormalenvironment.Third,laboratoryexperimentsareoftenhighlyartificial.Whenresearcherstrytosetupsocialsituationsinlaboratories,theyoftenmustomitmanyofthefactorsthatwouldinfluencethesamebehaviorinareal-lifesituation,thusaffectingthevalidityoftheexperimentresult.ThemeritsofsurveythroughtheInternetarethatit’sveryquick(intermsoftime)andefficient(intermsofcost),butthedrawbacksarealsoobvious:notallcitizensusetheInternet(andthereforeexcludedfromthesampling),andalsonotallnetizensparticipateinthesurveyandthereforefurtheraffectthesurveyresult.Thetermoftenreferssimplytotheuseofpredictiveanalytics,userbehavioranalytics,orcertainotheradvanceddataanalyticsmethodsset.Accuracyinbigdatamayleadtomoreconfidentdecisionmaking,andbetterdecisionscanresultingreateroperationalefficiency,costreductionandreducedrisk.Relationaldatabasemanagementsystemsanddesktopstatisticsandvisualizationpackagesoftenhavedifficultyhandlingbigdata.Theworkinsteadrequires“massivelyparallelsoftwarerunningontens,hundreds,oreventhousandsofservers”.Also,thosewhodonotusetheInternetareexcludedfromtheanalysisthereforeaffecttheanalysisandconclusion.isopenfordiscussionandthere’snodefiniteanswer)TheInternetcompaniesarecaughtbetweenthetwosides:thegovernmentsidewhoemphasizegatheringmonitoringinformationforpublicsecurityornationalsecurityreason,andthenetizenswhodefendtheirrightof“privacy”.Lawsshouldbemaderegardingtherightandresponsibilityofeachside.(Thisquestionisopenfordiscussion)Howonefeelsaboutthesemightbeaffectedbytheclass,occupation,gender,regionandagegroup(andotherfactors)anindividualbelongsto.Andalso,theofficialstatisticsmightnotbeveryaccurate.(Thisquestionisopenfordiscussion)Obviously,massmedia(newspapers,radio,TV,theInternet)arethemajorchannelpeoplegetmostoftheirinformationwhichissupposedtobetrueandreal.Buttherearesomefactorsthatinfluencetheso-calledtruth:ownership(privateorpublic),editors’stance,classbackgroundoftheparticipants(intheInternet)canallinfluencetheinformationwegetfromthemassmedia.LanguageEnhancementWordsandphrases1.(1)C&D(2)A&C(3)C&E(4)B&C(5)B&D(6)D&F(7)B&D(8)C&E(9)A&C(10)C&E2.(1)in;as;of (2)beyond;in (3)by;to (4)into;in;of of;for(6)of;for;on (7)In;between;with;of (8)to;of;upon(9)In;with(10)like;in;of3.(1)fromscratch(2)appealedto(3)applied(4)apply(5)relieson(6)sufferingfrom(7)guardagainst(8)diedoff(9)ranoutof(10)contributeto4.(1)provide…for (2)appealsfor (3)applies…to (4)drawfrom employedin(7)refers…to(8)received…from(9)passes…from(10)exposes…toSentencesanddiscourse1.Thescientificmethodbasesknowledgeondirectandsystematicobservationthroughlogicalvidesconditionstomeasurethevariableswhichmaybecheckedempirically.Sincereligionisasystemofbeliefsandpracticesbasedonpeopleeasilytendtoequatefaithtofactsorfactstofaith.Theobviousadvantageofusingavailabledata,beitgovernmentstatisticsortheresultofotherresearchstudies–isthesavingsintimeandmoney.Otherwise,youwouldneedalotoftimeandmoneyspentoncollectingtheinformationfromtheverystart.tempting,butthepotentialerroranddistortionfromthesecond-handd