英語語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論

CourseName:IntroductiontoLinguisticsSept.2012,forGrade2010Classes1-6EnglishUndergraduateProgramDepartmentofEnglishSchoolofForeignLanguageStudiesNanchangUniversity(NCU)CourseInstructor:Prof./Dr.JIANGSyllabusCourseDescription:ThiscourseaimsatprovidingundergraduatejuniorsofEnglishmajorwithafundamentalandsystematicaccountofthebasicknowledgeofthestudiesoflinguisticsatthemoderntimewithexplanations,illustrations,andnecessaryexamplesfromthecoursebookandalsofrompresentEnglishandChineselanguageuses,tohelpdevelopthestudents'interestinthisstudy,tofacilitatetheirunderstandingofthelinguistictermsandtheories,andtobuildasystematicknowledgeofthesaidstudy.MajorBooksUsedforthisCourse:Hu,Zhuanglin2006.Linguistics.ACourseBook(ThirdEdition).BeijingUniversityPress,usedasstudents'coursebook.Robins,R.H.1967/1997.AShortHistoryofLinguistics(4thedn).London,NewYork:Longman.Yule,George.2000.TheStudyofLanguage.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.KeithBrownetal.(eds.)2006.EncyclopediaofLanguageandLinguistics(2ndedn),Oxford:Elsevier.Collinge,N.E.(ed.)2005.AnEncyclopaediaofLanguage.London,NewYork:Routledge.Strazny,Philipp(ed.)2005.AnEncyclopediaofLinguistics.NewYork,Oxon:FitzroyDearborn.Wikipedia,/EncyclopaediaBritannica.2007.theelectroniceditioncanbeaccessibleontheinternet.CourseRequirements:許諾 xu許久 Xil許老師Xi!很熱/很好我們/我想請(qǐng)假/我等你等了好久/我想請(qǐng)你少給我吵鬧。(Q62.Whatarephonologicalchanges?frombottomofp42,43)Ruleordering—phonologicalchangesaresystematic.Therearerulestobedescribedofsuchchanges.Phonologicalchangesaresoundchangesinprocessessuchasnasalization,dentalization,velarization9anddevoicing,whereatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralandphonologicalchangeincertainenvironmentorcontextwhenconditionedortriggeredbyafollowingsound.[S][z][iz]booksboots/goods[t][d][id]workedissuedreceivedunited[t][d][id]workedissuedreceivedunitedbookedfollowedrecognizedseatedneeded(Q63.Whatisdevoicing?Epenthesis?Whataresibilants?p43,44,46)*Devoicingisaprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.*Epenthesisistheprocessofinsertionofasoundtoasequenceofutterance.*Sibilantsarefricativesandaffricateswhichbehaveinthesamewayinpronunciationwhenfollowedbytheregularpluralform.Homework:Gooverthequestionsdiscussed.Describetheconditionsforphonologicalchangesin[t][d][id]fortheregularpastform?HowmanysymbolsareusedintheIPAnotationsystem?Lecture6PhonologicalStudiesContinued(Q64.Whatisdistinctivefeature?Whatareobstruentsandsonorants?)DistinctivefeatureItisthefeaturethatcandistinguishonephonemefromanotherwhenotherfeaturesarealike.Eg.[p][b]+/-voice;otherfeatures—bilabialandstoparethesame[t][d]+/-voice;otherfeatures—alveolarandstoparethesame[m][p]+/-nasal?Obstruentsarestops,fricativesandaffricateswhilesonorantsareallotherconsonantsandvowels.(Q65.Whataresupersegmentalfeatures?)(Q66.Whatisasyllable?Whatdoesafullsyllabicstructurecontain?p50.)SupersegmentalfeaturesTheyarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.SyllableItisthesoundunitwhichisusuallyformedofavoweloravowelandconsonant(s).Eg.ask[a:sk]:1syllableAttentionshouldbepaidtosomespecialsyllables:table[teib\] 2syllablesbutton[bAtn] 2syllablesbottom?little,apple,cradle,lamb,coolAfullsyllabicstructurecontainsonset,rhyme/nucleus,andcoda.(Q67.Whatisopensyllableandclosedsyllable?p50.)Asyllablethathasnocodaisanopensyllablewhileasyllablewithcodaisaclosedone.(Q68.Whatisastress?)StressItreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Araisedverticallineisusedtomarkit[*].Wordstressisusuallyfixed.Itisonsyllable.Sentencestressmayfallonanywordfordifferentemphases.Itisusuallyoncontentwordbutnotalwaysso.StressinEnglishcandistinguishfunctionand/ormeaning.Eg:produce'producecontentcontentprogress?(Q69.Whatisintonation?Whatistonelanguage?)Intonationandtone語調(diào),聲調(diào)Intonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordorongroupsofwords.Alanguageinwhichtonechangesareusedtoaffectthemeaningsofindividualwordsiscalledatonelanguage.(2)LexiconInthissection,weshallfocusonwhat'\void”meansandtheidentificationand

classificationofit.(Q70.Whatisaword?)Whatisaword?AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeformusedtoconstructsentence(whileasentenceisamaximumfreeform).*Numbers,letters,andsymbolsarenotwords.Wordisaunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynativespeakerswhetherexpressedinspokenorwrittenform(avagueandproblematicdefinition,aspointedoutinthecoursebook)(Q71.Whatarethethreesensesof“word"?)Threesensesof“word”Ithasaphysicallydefinableunit;yetnoteasytofigureoutsometimes.Egl.Letushaveit.一4wordsLet'sgo.一Howmanywords?Eg2.1amateacher.-4wordsThereare2NsandanAintheword“Ann”.一Howmanywords?everyday.Eg3.WishyouMoreexamples:everyday.Eg3.Wishyou*AndthecountiiigofCliinesewords(it'sdifficultbecauseChinesecharactersdonotmeanwordsand,what'smore,theycomeoutonefollowinganotherwithoutspacesseparatingthem)makesagreatertrouble.Eg.我們明天一起去上學(xué)校。?我們明天一起去上學(xué)校。?我們明天一起去上學(xué)校。thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms;bookbooksbookingbookedHowmanywordsdowecounthere?Oneorfour?Wordandlexeme,whatisthedifference?agrammaticalunit.Homework:Gooverthequestionsdiscussed.Readfrompages57-72.Handinnexttime:HowmanyvariantsordialectsaretherefortheEnglishlanguage?Wherearetheyused?Howdid"kejia”客家話dialectoccur?Whereisitused?Lecture7Lexicon(Continued)0.Collecthomeworkandcheckthequestionsdiscussed(Q72.Howtoidentifyaword?)WordIdentificationandclassificationWordscanbeidentifiedintermsof:StabilityWordhasstableinternalstructure.Eg."chairman"not"manchair”“將來not“來將"RelativeiininterruptibilityWedon'tInsertelementintoawordwithoutharmingthemeaning.Wedon'tbreakupthepartsinaword.Eg.water(not“waiter")“村”(not“樹”or“木”，“寸”)Aminimumfreeforminsentence“come”(not“com"and"ing”,nor"cominghome“asthebasicunittoenterintoasentence).Separation,however,makesmeaningdifferenceandbecomedifferentwords.Eg.“sometime”--“some”“time”.(Q73.Whatarevariableandinvariablewords?)Wordscanbeclassifledintermsof:variableandinvariable可變?cè)~/不可變?cè)~Theformerrefertowordshavinginflectionalchangeswhilethelatterwordshavingnosuchendings.(Q74.Whataregrammaticalandlexicalwords?)grammaticalandlexical(alsocalledfunctionwordsandcontentwords)Theformerrefertothosewordsexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns;thelatterwordshavinglexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionetc.suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.(Q75.Whatareclose-classandopen-classwords?)closed-classandopen-class：封閉詞/開放詞Theformerrefertowordswhosemembershipisfixedorlimited;thelatterofwhichthemembershipisinfiniteorunlimited.wordclasses:詞類Thetraditionallyrecognizedwordclassesare:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,inteijection,article,etc.Thelateradditionsare:particles小品詞/語助詞(goby,comeup.lookfor?);auxiliaries助詞(can,be,will);pro-form替代詞(do,so);determiners(前置詞/限定詞all,every,few,plentyof,this).(Q76.Whataredifferencesbetween1)particleandprep;2)determinerandadj:pro-formandpron?)Thepartsthatformwords(Q77.Whatisamorpheme?)(Q78.Whatisfreemorpheme?Boundmorpheme?)Morpheme語素/詞素Itisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedfurtherwithoutdestroyingoralteringthemeaning.Tjpesofmorphemesfreeandbound:自由語素/粘著語素Thosewhichmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbytheinselves,arefreemorphemes.Eg.dog,mouse,look,nice,wish,meThosethatmustappearorbeusedwithatleastanothermorphemeareboundmorphemes.Eg.-al,-ist,-er,-ness,un-,dis-,inter",-ly(Q79.Whatisaroot,anaffixandastem?)root,affixandstem:Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithoutlosingitsidentity.Eg."internationalism''therootis*A11wordscontainarootmorpheme.Anaffixisthetypeofformthatisaddedtoanothermorpheme(rootorstein)toformword.Itcannotbeusedfreelyinsentence.Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixisadded.Eg.“wait"in"waited”“understand"in“understanding”“fHend"in"friends"，andfriendshipin“friendships”.*Astemisnotarootalthoughitmayhavethesameformsometimes.(Q80.Whatisaninflectionalaffix?)(Q81.Whatisaderivationalaffix?)Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix:Inflectionalaffixesdonotcreatenewwordorchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto.Eg.uflowersninwhich"s"doesnotchangethewordclassspeak+ingask+ed*TheysimplyindicateGRAMMATICALCHANGEorone/someofthesixinflections.Derivationalaffixesbringnewwordtothevocabulary.Itmayormaynotchangethewordclass,BRINGINGNEWWORDeachtime.Eg.”small”and“smallness“；(wordclasschanges)“brother"and^brotherhood^“happy"and"unhappy”(Q82.Whatisinflection?)Inflection曲折變化Itisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipssuchastense,number,person,finiteness,aspect,andcasethroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.Egs."tables""s"doesnotchangethewordclass;“talked"“ed"doesnotchangethegrammaticalclass“teacher's"“yours”Homework:1)Gooverthequestionsdiscussed.2)Preview3.3(p.72—82)Lecture8WordFormationandLexicalChangeInthissection,weshallmainlyfocusonthewayswordsareformedorcreatedandhowwordschangeanddevelopthroughtime.LWordformation(Q83.Whatiscompound?)(Q84.Whatisderivation?)Compound:wordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytoJointwoseparatewordstoproduceanewone.Egs.uclassroonf\€4watenva/"“biainwash","carefree”Classificationofcompounds(1):nouncompounds,verbcompounds,adjectivecompounds,prepositioncompounds.Classificationofcompounds(2):endocentricandexocentric(p66.)Derivation:thewaytoformwordswithacombinationofrootsandaffixes.Egs.popular+ize,stud(y)+entemploy+er,book+ish(Q85.Whatisthecounterpointofphonologyandmorphology?)ThecounterpointofphonologyandmorphologyItreferstothephenomenonthatmorphemeandphonemedonotcorrespondwitheachother.Amorphemecanberepresentedbyasinglephonemeortwoormorephonemes.Monophonemicmorpheme:dogsMonosyllabicmorpheme:lovelyPolysyllabicmorpheme:tobacco(Q86.Whatissememe?p68.)Sememe:thesmallestcomponentofmeaning(Q87.Whatismorphophonology?)Morphophonology:alsocalledmorphonology,isabranchoflinguisticsthatreferstotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffectthemorphemeforms,andcorrespondingly,themorphologicalfactorsthataffectthephonemeforms.(Q88.Whatareallomorphs?p71.)Allomorphs:whenamorphemeisrealizedinvariedphoneticforms,theseformsarecalledallomorphs.Or,theyaredifferentphoneticrealizationsofamorpheme.Lexicalchange(1)(Q89.Whatisblending?)(Q90.Whatisacronym?)(Q91.Whatisback-formation?)(Q92.Whatisanalogicalcreation?)(Q93.Whatarethe4typesofborrowing?)Invention新造詞Blending混合詞:acomplexformofcompoundinginwhichtwowordsarejoinedtogetherwiththeinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword.Abbreviation縮合詞Acronym首字母縮略詞：awordmadeupfromtheinitiallettersofthenameofanorganization.Back-formation逆構(gòu)詞：anunusualtypeofwordformationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromanexistinglongerwordinthelanguage.Analogicalcreation類推造詞：Creationofwordsorwordformsbyanalogyorbyfollowingsuitofanexistingpopularpractice.Borrowing外來詞，借詞：thefourtypesare—loanwords;loanblend;loanshift;andloantranslation.Lexicalchange(2)Lexicalchangeasaresultof:Morpho-syntacticalchangeMorphologicalchange:“goeth,hath,do(e)st,playest”inO.E.become“goes,has,do,play“inmodemEnglish.Syntacticalchange:"morelowei"“nioostsliameftillestvhavebecomeulowervand“mostshameful''today.(Q94.Whatisfolketymology?)Semanticchange:averyimportantroleinwideningthemeaningofthevocabularyofalanguage.broadeningnarrowingmeaningshiftclassshift:marketn.—marketv.—marketingfolketymology俗詞源學(xué)，民間詞源：thechangeoftheformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningoftheterm,orfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous.Egs.cockroachisdevelopedfromtheSpanish“ciicaiacha”;“wizard”to“wiz”to“whiz”(嗯明人，專家).Phonologicalchanges(Q95.Whatismetathesis?)Loss："sorth“inOldEnglishto“sorrow“iiimodemEnglish,and"niht"nowbecomes“night”additionmetathesis語音換位：aprocessinvolvingachangeinthesequenceofsounds.Eg.theword"biid”was“biid”iiiO.E.and"ask"waspronouncedas"aks".assimilationOrthographicchange書寫方式變化Eg.“l(fā)esus”,“sate”,"Siinne”inOldEnglisharereplacedby“Jesus”,“sat”,and44sun^respectivelytoday.Homework:GooverthequestionsdiscussedHandinnexttime:WhatistheformationofChinesewords?HowmuchdoyouknowaboutSanskrit?Lecture9Syntax(1)Inthissection,weshalltakeupanewchapter,discussingsyntax.Weshallfocusondifferentsyntacticapproachesandrelationsofdifferentkinds.0.Classactivities:CollecthomeworkandcheckthequestionsorallyHowarewordscombinedtoformasentence?Howtoanalyzeasentence?Syntaxreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimplyput,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.Asfortheanalysisoftheconstnjctionofasentence,therearefourdifferentapproaches.Thepossibilityofdifferentanalysescanbeseenfromtheanalysesofanysimplesentencesuchas:"我學(xué)習(xí)英語“。“這本書我沒有讀過”。Thefirstapproachtosyntax-thetraditionalapproach(Q96.Whatiscategory?)Category,number,gender,caseCategory語*去范疇：Itcanrefertothepartsofspeechandfunctionsofwords;itcanalsomeanthepropertiesofunitslikenounandverb,suchasthoseofnumber,gender,casefornoun,andtense,aspect,voiceforverb.Number:mostlyagrammaticalcategoryofthenounandpronoun,i.e.singularityvs.plurality.Gender：mostlyagrammaticalcategoryofthenounandpronoun,i.e.femalevs.male.(Q97.WhatarethethreecasesinEnglish?)d?Case：prominentinLatin(sixcases).Englishpronounshavethreecases:nominative主格，accusative[ju:]賓格，受格,genitive/possessive屬格，所有格(his,George^).Tenseandaspect:twoimportantcategoriesoftheverb,andtheywerenotseparatedintraditionalgrammar.InEnglish,thetwoaspectsare"perfective^and“progressive”.Eg.Georgehasgotmarried.Georgeistalkingtohisfather-in-law.(Q98.Whatisconcord?)(Q99.Whatisgovernment?)Concordandgovernment:一致，統(tǒng)領(lǐng)/管轄Theformer,alsoknownasagreement:theformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.Egs.thisperson,thesepeople.Wehaveclass.Hehasclass.Thelatter:therelationshipinwhichthewordofacertainclass

determinestheformofothersintermsofcertaincategory.InEnglish,thepronounafteraverborprepositionshouldbeinaccusativefbrm."Shewantedhimtocome.Tome,it'snew.Thesecondapproachtosyntax-thestructuralapproachItwasinitiatedbySaussureatthebeginningofthe20thcentuiy.(QI00.Whatispositionalrelationorsyntagmaticrelation?p84)(QI01.Whatisrelationofsubstitutionorparadigmaticrelation?p85)Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelation橫組合/縱聚合關(guān)系Saussureproposedthedistinctioninhislectures.Theformerisarelationbetweenelementsthatoccurinasentence.Eg.seethedifferentrelationsin:“Theboychasedthedog.”“Thedogchasedtheboy.”Thelatter,SaussureoriginallycalleduAssociativeRelation"，isarelationbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceofastructure.Eg.JohnisstudyingChinese.Tom-

Kate—FrenchTom-

Kate—FrenchJapanese/Arabic*Saussureoriginallyappliedtheideatoanalyzingphonologicalrelations.(QI02.Whatisrelationofco-occurrence?)(QI03.Whatisimmediateconstituent?p87)Relationofco-occurrence:wordsofdifferentsetsorclassesmaypermitorrequiretheoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceorapartofasentence.Immediateconstituentanalysis直接成分分析Asentenceisnotonlylinearlyarranged,butalsohierarchicallystructured.BloomfieldproposeditinhisbookLanguagein1933.*IftwoconstituentsBandCareJoinedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA,thenthetwoconstituentsaresaidtobetheimmediateconstituentsofthehigherconstituentA.Howtodoitqamemome.Theadvantage:helpfulindemonstratingtheinternalstructure/ambiguityifany.Itsproblems:(1)itisnotpossibletomakethefirstcutsometimes;(2)itisnotpossibletoanalyzesomesentences,suchasthosewithinsertions;(3)itcannotsucceedintevealingtheambiguityofsomestructures.Eg."theloveofGod”

(QI04.Whatisendocentric/exocentricconstmction?p89.)Endocentric/exocentricconstructions向心/離心結(jié)構(gòu):Theformer:awordoragroupofwordsinwhichthereisadefinablecenter/head.Eg.thebookontheshelf.Thelatterhasnonoticeablecenter.Lecture10Syntax(2)Thethirdapproachtosyntax—thegenerativeapproachChomskyinitiateditin1957.(QI05.Whatisdeepstructure?Surfacestructure?)Deepandsurfacestructures.Theformerreferstotheabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,thelattertherealizationinwrittenorspokenform,whatspeakersactuallyproduceandreceive.(SyntacticStructures,1957)TheTheThewoman

man

boyspeaks

speaksTheTheThewoman

man

boyspeaks

speaksspeaksFrench.Chinese.English.S—?NP+VPVP~~?V+NPNP~?Det+NTransformationalruleshelpchangethedeepstructuresgeneratedbythephrasestructurecomponentsintosurfacestructures.Eg.Theoperationofthepassivetransformationalrulegeneratesapassivesentencefromthedeepstricture:Johnwillfinishthepapertomorrow——>ThepaperwillbefinishedbyJohn(tomorrow).ComingbacktothequestionunansweredbyICanalysis—theloveofGod.inChomsky'sanalysis,thisisasurfacestructure.Therearetwodeepstructuresunderneath:Godlovessomebody.SomebodylovesGod.ItistransformationsthatJ ?areresponsiblefortheconvergenceofthetwodeepstructuresintoonewhentheycometothesurface.TheStandardTheoryandafter1965isthesecondgreatyearforChomskywhenhepublishedAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntaxandmodifiedhisearliermodel.Tomodifyhismodeltomeetattacksfromotheropponentresearchers,headded“semanticcomponent”tohismodel.Butthespecificationofthesemanticfeaturesturnsouttobeanimpossibletask.What'smore,itcanneverpreventtheproductionofsomeungrammaticalorillogicalsentences.Eg.Ifitmayprevent-Sinceritymayfrightentheboy.(youcanspecifythedoer)Itmaynotprevent-Theboymayfrightensincerity.Therefore,Chomsky'smodifiedmodelwasagainprovedinsufficient,leadingtohissecondmodification,whichwasagainfoundinadequateandwaschallengedwithmanycounterexamples,leadingtohisthirdmodification.Governmentandbinding管轄與約束1981isthethirdimportantyearforChomskywhenhepublishedtheseriesoflectureshedeliveredinPisa,Italyin1979.Agrammarisnowsaidtohavetwosystems:arulesystemandaprinciplesystem.Therulesystemhas4components:lexicon,syntax,phoneticformcomponent,andlogicalformcomponent.Theprinciplesystemincludes6theories.Weshallconcentrateongovernmentandbindingtheories.Government:controlovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstructions.Egl.gavehimTohim"gave"and"to"aregovernors,and“him”isgovernedbythem.Eg2.speakaboutthelanguage“speak"governstheppphrase,and"about”governs"thelanguage”.(QI06.Whatisc-commandrelation?)C-commandrelation/constraint:adiscussionsimilartogovernment,ac-commandsBifitdoesnotdominateBandeveryrthatdominatesaalsodominatesB.(QI07.Whatisbindingrelation?)Bindingrelation:A<ananaphorisboundinitsgoverningcategory.B-apronominalIsfreeinitsgoverningcategory.C.anr-expresslonisfree.Egl.Johnilikeshimselfi.JohnandMarylikeeachother.Johnlikeshim.JohnlikesGeorge.Therearemanycounterexamplestotheabove,esp.fromlanguagessuchasChinese(eg.李小姐說張先生要娶自己。)andChomskywasprovedincompleteagain.TheMinimalistProgram最簡方案Chomsky'slatestmodel,inwhichsomechangestothebindingconditionsweremade.4.Thefourthapproachtosyntax—thefunctionalapproachThePragueSchoolandHallidayThePragueLinguisticCircleholdsthatasentencemaybeanalyzedfromthefunctionalaswellasthegrammaticalaspect.Mathesius,thelife-longchairman,heldthatapartfromtheanalysisofsentenceintermsofsubjectandpredicatefromtheformalpointofview,therecanalsobeafunctionalanalysisofsentenceintermsofuthemew(主題)and"rheme”(述題).a.Theme-rhemeanalysis.Thisanalysiscantellthedifferenceofsentencesofdifferentorders.Egs.inCzechandChinese1)Tatineknapsaltenhledopis.(fatherwrotethisletter)Tenhledopisnapsaltatinek.(thisletterwrotefather)2)這本書我讀過。我讀過這本書。一桌飯吃十個(gè)人。(誰吃誰？)一間宿舍住六位女生。(QI08.Whatistheme-rheme?)Theme-rheme:thefirstrefersto“thatwhichisknownoratleastobviousinagivensituation“andthesecond“whatthespeakerstatesabout”.Known-unknown.Objectivevs.subjectivewordorderSystemic-FunctionalGrammarSystem:elementsoflanguageareformedintosystems.Theuseoflanguageinvolvesasystemofchoices.Themembersinasystemareinachoicerelationwitheachother.Function:languagehassocialfunctions.ThetheoryofSystemic-FunctionalGrammarwasdevelopedbytheBritishbornAustralianlinguistHalliday.ThesystemicnatureisacontributionofthefirstlinguisticchairinBritain-Firth.FromMalinowski,Hallidayinheritedtheideathatlanguageisasocialphenomenon,andemphasizedthestudyoflanguageinrelationtoitssocialfunctions.WhatisnewinHallidayishistryingtorelatethefunctionsoflanguagetoitsstructures.Threefunctionsoflanguageproposedbyhimare:ideational,interpersonal,andtextual.Sentenceismoreaunitinwriting.Andtheterm"clause”ispreferredasabasicunitofstructure.(QI09.Whatiscoordination?p90)(QI10.Whatissubordination?p91)Coordinationandsubordination:Theformerisacommonsyntacticpatterninlanguageformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunction.Thelatterreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.(QI11.Whatisaclause?Andthetwotypes?p99)(QI12.Whatisrecursiveness?plOl)Aconstituentwithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence,isaclause.Itcanbeclassifiedintofiniteandnon-flniteclauses,thelatterincludingthetraditionalinfinitivephrase,participialphrase,andgerundialphrase.*Recursiveness:whenaphrasalconstituentisembeddedwithinanotherconstituentofthesamecategory,whichagainisembeddedwithinanotherconstituentofthesamecategoryandsoon,thisphenomenonisrecursiveness.(QI13.Whatisconjoining?Pl02)(QI14.Whatisembedding?)(QI15.Whataretheusualcohesivedevices?)Conjoiningreferstotheprocesswhereoneclauseiscoordinatedorconjoinedwithanother.*Embedclingreferstothemeansbywhichoneclauseisincludedinthesentenceinsyntacticsubordination.*Theusualcohesivedevicesareconjunction,ellipsis,lexicalcollocation,lexicalrepetition,reference,substitution,etc.5.Homework:GooverthequestionsdiscussedHandinnexttime:Whataredifferencesbetweenthestructural,thegenerativeandthefunctionalanalysesofsentence?WhichanalysisismostappropriatefortheChineselanguage?Lecture11Meaning(1)Inthissection,weshallstartanewchapter,discussingwordmeaningandsentencemeaning.Weshallfirstdiscusswordmeaning,therelationbetweenmeaningandobject,betweenmeanings,andthendiscusshowtoanalyzesentencemeaning.0.Pre-activities:1)Collectthehomeworkandcheckthequestionsorallyinclass.2)Classactivity:Whatismeaning?Whatiswordmeaning?Meaningsofwords(QI16.Whatarethe7typesofmeaningdiscussedbyG.Leech?)Leech'sdiscussionof7meanings一(QI17.Whatisconceptualmeaning?)Conceptualmeaning概念意義：logical,cognitive,anddenotative(外延的，指示的).Itisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotesorrefersto.Itiswhatthewordbasicallymeans.Eg."Cold"meansthatthetemperatureislow.(QI18.Whatisconnotativemeaning?)(QI19.Whatisreflectedmeaning?)(QI20.Whatisthematicmeaning?)Associativemeanings:connotativemeaning內(nèi)涵意義：Whatiscommunicatedorconveyedinparticularorindetail.Eg."Cold”indicatessomerealworldphenomenaobservableorimaginable.socialmeaningEg."紅"and"red”meandifferentlyindifferentsocietyandunderdifferentculture.affectivemeaning情感意義:Theindicationoffeelingsandattitudes.Eg.“refuse”,“decline"，“拒絕”，“謝絕”reflectedmeaning反映意義:Meaningassociatedwithanothersenseofthesameexpression."請(qǐng)教""不客氣”collocativemeaning:Meaningfromassociationwithunusualcollocation,“colddoor”,“coldperson","吃虧"，"吃票"thematicmeaning主題意義/強(qiáng)調(diào)意義(emphaticmeaning):Meaningfromdifferentorspecialorderingofthewordorexpression."我見過這人?！薄斑@人我見過J(QI21.Whatisreferentialtheory?p107)MeaningandrealworldrelationReferentialtheory:Itisatheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningsofwordstothethingstheyrefertoorstandforintherealworld.(QI22.Whatissemantictriangle(theory)?)Semantictriangle:Ogden&Richardsproposeditint