語言學知識點知識講解

語言學知識點第一頁，共146頁。I語言學導論(dǎolùn)II語言學主要分支學科III語言學的流派和理論第二頁，共146頁。I語言學導論(dǎolùn)

1.designfeatureoflanguage（語言的定義特征）2.LanguageFamilies(世界(shìjiè)語言分類)3.importantdistinctionsinlinguistics(語言學研究中幾對重要的概念)4.scopeoflinguistics(語言學的研究范圍)第三頁，共146頁。1.designfeatureoflanguage（語言的定義(dìngyì)特征)definingpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication第四頁，共146頁。1.designfeatureoflanguage

語言(yǔyán)定義特征

1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Duality(二層性)3)Creativity/Productivity(創(chuàng)造性)4)Displacement（移位(yíwèi)性）5)CulturalTransmission(文化傳遞性)第五頁，共146頁。1）Arbitrariness(任意性):定義(dìngyì)：theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.舉例：書,book,livre喜歡，like，aimer第六頁，共146頁。2）Duality（二層性）:定義(dìngyì)：thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevel.舉例：Sounds>syllables>words>phrases>clauses>sentences>texts/discourses第七頁，共146頁。3）Creativity/Productivity（創(chuàng)造性）:定義(dìngyì)：Languagecanbeusedtocreatenewmeaningsbecauseofitsduality舉例1：/k/,/a:/,/p/----carporpark舉例2：England,defeated,FranceEnglanddefeatedFrance.FrancedefeatedEngland.第八頁，共146頁。4）Displacement（替代性）:定義(dìngyì)：Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizesomethingwhicharenotpresentatthemomentofcommunication.第九頁，共146頁。5）CulturalTransmission（文化(wénhuà)傳遞性）:定義：languageispassedonfromgenerationtogenerationthroughteachingandlearningratherthaninstinct.反例：印度狼孩第十頁，共146頁。3.Designfeature定義(dìngyì)特征1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Duality(二層性)3)Creativity/Productivity(創(chuàng)造性)4)Displacement（移位性）5)CulturalTransmission(文化傳遞性)如何記憶(jìyì):五性，創(chuàng)意遺傳第十一頁，共146頁。4.ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics(語言學研究(yánjiū)中幾對重要的概念)1)descriptive&prescriptive2)synchronic&diachronic3)langue&parole4)competence&performance第十二頁，共146頁。1)Descriptive（描述性）vs.Prescriptive（規(guī)定性）Descriptive:describinghowthingsare.prescriptive:prescribinghowthingsoughttobe第十三頁，共146頁。ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics舉例(jǔlì)：Don'tsayX.Peopledon'tsayX.Thefirstisaprescriptivecommand,whilethesecondisadescriptivestatement.第十四頁，共146頁。2).Synchronic（共時性）vs.Diachronic（歷時(lìshí)性）synchronic:takesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.diachronic:thestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.第十五頁，共146頁。舉例：研究1800年的英語發(fā)音(fāyīn)Synchronicstudies(共時性研究)研究1800-1900的法語語法變化Diachronicstudies(歷時研究)第十六頁，共146頁。2.世界(shìjiè)語言分類Languagefamily語系languagegroup語族Languagebranch語支印歐語系,漢藏語系，南島語系，阿爾泰語系，南亞語系印歐語系下的日耳曼語族，羅曼語族，凱爾特語族,斯拉夫語族，伊朗印度語族日耳曼語族下分東日耳曼語支，西日耳曼支，北日耳曼語支第十七頁，共146頁。2.世界語言(yǔyán)分類Languagefamily語系languagegroup語族Languagebranch語支印歐語系,漢藏語系，南島語系，阿爾泰語系，南亞語系印歐語系下的日耳曼語族，羅曼語族，凱爾特語族,斯拉夫語族，伊朗印度語族日耳曼語族下分西日耳曼支，東日耳曼語支，北日耳曼語支第十八頁，共146頁。Indo-Europeanlanguagefamily印歐語系Germanicgroup日耳曼語族WestBranch西日耳曼語支英語，德語NorthBranch瑞典語，丹麥語--Celticgroup凱爾特語族NorthCelticgroup北凱爾特語支愛爾蘭語，蓋爾語SouthCelticgroup南凱爾特語支威爾士語Romangroup羅曼語族WestRomanGroup西羅曼語支法語，西班牙語等東支羅馬尼亞語Slavicgroup斯拉夫語族WestSlavicgroup斯拉夫語西支波蘭語，捷克語東支俄語第十九頁，共146頁。ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics3).langue（語言(yǔyán)）&parole（言語）Theorist：Saussure（索緒爾）,fatherofmodernlinguisticslangue:abstractlinguisticsystemparole:actualrealizationoflangue第二十頁，共146頁。ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics舉例：漢語系統(tǒng)langue每個中國人在不同具體場景(chǎngjǐng)中說出的具體話語parole第二十一頁，共146頁。ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics4)Competence（語言能力(nénglì)）andperformance（語言運用）theorist:Chomsky(喬姆斯基)competence:user'sknowledgeofrulesaboutthelinguisticsystem.performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinconcretesituations.第二十二頁，共146頁。5.ScopeofLinguistics(語言學的研究范圍)1）按研究內(nèi)容(nèiróng)來分2）按研究導向來分第二十三頁，共146頁。語言學分類(fēnlèi)-按研究內(nèi)容分LinguisticsMicro-linguistics語言內(nèi)部問題Macro-linguistics語言與外部世界關系問題第二十四頁，共146頁。語言學分類-按研究(yánjiū)內(nèi)容分Micro-LinguisticssoundPhonetics(語音學)Phonology（音系學）wordMorphology（形態(tài)學）sentenceSyntax（句法學）meaningSemantics（語義學）Pragmatics(語用學)第二十五頁，共146頁。Macro-linguisticsLanguage&SocietySociolinguistics社會語言學Language&MindPsycholinguistics心理語言學Language&Cultureanthropologicallinguistics人類語言學Language&ComputerComputationalLinguistics計算機語言學第二十六頁，共146頁。語言學分類-按研究(yánjiū)導向分LinguisticsTheoreticalLinguisticsLinguisticnature,universalrulesAppliedLinguisticslanguageacquisition,teaching,assessment第二十七頁，共146頁。語言學分類(fēnlèi)-按研究內(nèi)容分Micro-LinguisticssoundPhonetics(語音學)Phonology（音系學）wordMorphology（形態(tài)學）sentenceSyntax（句法學）meaningSemantics（語義學）Pragmatics(語用學)第二十八頁，共146頁。語言學分類(fēnlèi)-按研究內(nèi)容分Micro-LinguisticssoundPhonetics(語音學)Phonology（音系學）wordMorphology（形態(tài)學）sentenceSyntax（句法學）meaningSemantics（語義學）Pragmatics(語用學)第二十九頁，共146頁?？键c:1.語音學(phonetics)和音系學(phonology)的定義和區(qū)別2.語音學重要概念:清音和濁音(zhuóyīn)3.音系學重要概念:音子，音位,超音段特征第三十頁，共146頁。Phoneticsstudiesallspeechsoundsinhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,transmittedandhowtheyarereceived.Phonology:aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.區(qū)別(qūbié):meaning(是否研究和表達意義有關的語音）第三十一頁，共146頁。舉例(jǔlì):too和tea中的/t/發(fā)too中的/t/時,舌位更靠近口腔前部發(fā)tea中的/t/時，舌位更靠近口腔后部語音學要研究這種/t/發(fā)音的不同之處,音系學不研究第三十二頁，共146頁。Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.第三十三頁，共146頁。語音學分類(fēnlèi)articulatoryphonetics(發(fā)音(fāyīn)語音學):speaker’sproductionacousticphonetics（聲學語音學）:transmission’smediumauditoryphonetics(聽覺語音學):receiver’sreception第三十四頁，共146頁。如何(rúhé)記憶phonetics和phonolgy的區(qū)別:聯(lián)想:mathematics,physics,mechanicsphonetics語言學，-ics科學性更強

geology,sociology,astrologyphonology音系學，-ology人文性更強第三十五頁，共146頁。HowspeechsoundsaremadeSpeechorgans第三十六頁，共146頁。第三十七頁，共146頁。Positionofthevocalfolds(聲帶(shēngdài)):voicing(濁音)andvoiceless(清音)第三十八頁，共146頁。Voiceless(清音)：vocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingtheairstreamgothroughwithoutcausingobstruction清音舉例(jǔlì)：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（濁音）：vocalcordsheldtogether,lettingtheairstreamvibrates濁音:[b,z,d]第三十九頁，共146頁。Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.第四十頁，共146頁。音系學定義：studyofhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.音系學重要概念:phone音子，phoneme音位(音系研究(yánjiū)的基本單位)supra-segmentalfeatures超音段特征第四十一頁，共146頁。Phone(音子)：aphoneticunit;thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringcommunicationareallphones舉例:too和tea中的/t/發(fā)too中的/t/時,舌位更靠近(kàojìn)口腔前部發(fā)tea中的/t/時，舌位更靠近(kàojìn)口腔后部所以too和tea中的/t/兩個不同的音子第四十二頁，共146頁。Phoneme(音位):phonologicalandabstractunit,aunitofdistinctivevalue;thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.舉例：tea和sea,/t/和/s/是兩個(liǎnɡɡè)不同的音位morpheme第四十三頁，共146頁。Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonology?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme第四十四頁，共146頁。Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonology?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme(音位(yīnwèi))第四十五頁，共146頁。Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme第四十六頁，共146頁。Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme第四十七頁，共146頁。Suprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征(tèzhēng))Suprasegmentalfeatures:phonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:第四十八頁，共146頁。Supra-segmentalfeatures(超音段特征(tèzhēng))：stress（重音）舉例:perfect(adj)和perfect(v)tone(聲調)/pitch(音高):定義:soundfeaturewhicharecausedbythedifferingrateofvibrationofthevocalfolds.舉例:mā媽,má麻,m?馬，mà罵比較：英語單詞，如me第四十九頁，共146頁。intonation（語調(yǔdiào)）：pitch,stress,andsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation.舉例:第五十頁，共146頁。Morphology形態(tài)學1.學科定義2.語素(yǔsù)的定義和分類3.詞的分類（classificationofwords）第五十一頁，共146頁。形態(tài)學研究的基本(jīběn)單位

1.morpheme(語素(yǔsù)）.Themostbasicelementofmeaninginlanguage，anelementthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutalteringitsmeaning.舉例：ballfootballballs第五十二頁，共146頁。Morpheme語素Freemorpheme自由語素定義：constitutewordsbythemselves舉例：girl,book,dogBoundmorpheme粘附語素Derivationalmorpheme派生語素定義：changelexicalmeaning舉例：Dis-,co-,-ful,-enInflectionalmorpheme屈折語素定義：changegrammaticalmeaning舉例:-s,-ed,-ing,,er,est定義:notoccurbythemselves第五十三頁，共146頁。TypesofMorphemesFreemorphemesvs.Boundmorphemes（自由(zìyóu)語素和黏著語素）:Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation.Boundmorphemes:thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.第五十四頁，共146頁。TypesofBoundMorpheme

Inflectionalmorpheme(屈折語素)=inflectionalaffix(屈折詞綴(cízhuì))：changethegrammaticalmeaning(number,aspect,case,tense)Derivationalmorpheme（派生語素）=inflectionalaffix(派生詞綴(cízhuì)）:changethelexicalmeaning第五十五頁，共146頁。dis+like+sderivationalfreeinflectionalmorpheme第五十六頁，共146頁。light+en+edfreederivationalinflectionalmorpheme第五十七頁，共146頁。Derivationalmorpheme(改變(gǎibiàn)詞義):改變(gǎibiàn)詞義：dis-,un-,multi-,micro-改變(gǎibiàn)詞性：en-,-full,-mentInflectionalmorpheme（改變(gǎibiàn)語法含義）:改變(gǎibiàn)名稱的性，數(shù)，格：-ess,-s,改變(gǎibiàn)動詞的時,態(tài)，體:-ing,-ed,改變(gǎibiàn)形容詞的級：-er,-est第五十八頁，共146頁。詞的分類(fēnlèi)-按構詞法分wordSimpleword簡單詞Compoundword合成詞Derivationalword派生詞第五十九頁，共146頁。如何區(qū)分(qūfēn)派生詞（derivationalword）和合成詞(compoundword):拆開后看各個組成的語素能否都單獨成詞，如果可以，就是合成詞，如果不能就是派生詞。Businessman:business+manPlayboy:play+boyMouthful:mouth+fulLighten:light+en第六十頁，共146頁。詞的分類(fēnlèi)-按詞義分wordGrammaticalword語法詞（functionword功能詞）定義：表達語法意義，連接舉例：prep介詞，conj連詞，art冠詞，pronoun代詞Lexicalword詞匯詞（contentword實義詞）定義：表達實際意義（物質，動作和性質）的詞舉例：n名詞，v動詞，adj形容詞，adv副詞第六十一頁，共146頁。詞的分類(fēnlèi)-按開放性分wordOpenclassword開放詞類定義：不斷有新詞進入舉例：noun,adj,verb,advClosed-classword封閉詞類定義：基本沒有新詞進入舉例:preposition,conjunction,article,pronoun第六十二頁，共146頁。詞的分類(fēnlèi)-按在句子重要性分詞類MajorpartofspeechNoun名詞Verb動詞Adjective形容詞adverb副詞preposition介詞MinorpartofspeechArticle冠詞Conjunction連詞Auxiliary助動詞第六十三頁，共146頁。

分類方法

按構詞法分簡單詞:dislike,light派生詞:

dislike,lighten合成詞:

cat-like,light-weight按詞義分語法詞:冠,介，代，連詞詞匯詞:名，動，形，副按開放性分開放詞:名，動，形，副封閉詞:冠,介，代，連詞按在句中重要性分主要詞類:名，動，形，副,介次要詞類：冠，代，連詞第六十四頁，共146頁。Syntax句法(jùfǎ)考點1.定義2.句法(jùfǎ)范疇3.句子類型第六十五頁，共146頁。1.Syntax定義(dìngyì)：:studiesinternalstructureofsentenceandrulesofsentence-formation第六十六頁，共146頁。Category(范疇):agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchassentence,anounphraseoraverb(起相同(xiānɡtónɡ)作用的一類語言單位)Syntacticalcategory(句法范疇):agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinsentence-formation.（在句子構成中起相同(xiānɡtónɡ)作用的一類語言單位）第六十七頁，共146頁。Syntacticalcategory(句法(jùfǎ)范疇)Word-----------lexicalcategoryPhrase---------phrasalcategoryClause---------clausalcategorySentence第六十八頁，共146頁。LexicalCategory詞法范疇(fànchóu)

=PartsofSpeech詞類LexicalcategoryMajorpartofspeechNoun名詞Verb動詞Adjective形容詞adverb副詞preposition介詞MinorpartofspeechArticle冠詞Conjunction連詞Auxiliary助動詞第六十九頁，共146頁。

分類方法

按構詞法分簡單詞:dislike,light派生詞:

dislike,lighten合成詞:

cat-like,light-weight按詞義分語法詞:冠,介，代，連詞詞匯詞:名，動，形，副按開放性分開放詞:名，動，形，副封閉詞:冠,介，代，連詞按在句中重要性分主要詞類/范疇:名，動，形，副,介次要詞類/范疇：冠，代，連詞第七十頁，共146頁。phrasespecifierheadcomplementacarfivemetersaway

第七十一頁，共146頁。72SentenceTypes(句子(jùzi)類型) simple

Sentence complex non-simple compound第七十二頁，共146頁。4.句子(jùzi)分類：Simplesentence簡單句Coordinatesentence并列句Complexsentence復雜句第七十三頁，共146頁。simplesentence簡單句定義(dìngyì)：alsocalledindependentclause,containsasubjectandaverb,anditexpressesacompletethought.

第七十四頁，共146頁。練習(liànxí)：

JimandMikeplayfootballeveryafternoon.(simplesentence)Marygoestothelibraryandstudieseveryday.(coordinatesentence)第七十五頁，共146頁。coordinatesentence并列句:containstwoindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinator(并列連詞(liáncí))suchasand,or,butetc.Coordinatorsareoftenprecededbyacomma.例句:ItriedtospeakSpanish,andmyfriendtriedtospeakEnglish.

Lilywenttoplayfootball,butMariawentshopping.第七十六頁，共146頁。Youhavetodoitonewayortheother.SimplesentenceTheworkerswerecheerful,oratleasttheyappearedtobecheerful.Coordinatesentence第七十七頁，共146頁。complexsentence定義(dìngyì)：Acomplexsentencehasanindependentclausejoinedwithoneormoredependentclausesbyoneormoresubordinators(從屬連詞)suchasif,when,because,althoug.第七十八頁，共146頁。Asheisgrowingold,heseldomgoesout.Heisgrowingold,whereashebecomeshealthier.如何區(qū)分并列和復雜句---看連詞表示(biǎoshì)的關系并列，選擇和轉折關系---并列句時間，條件，原因和讓步關系---復雜句第七十九頁，共146頁。Semantics考點：1.定義：studyofmeaning2.兩種基本意義(yìyì)：reference指稱和sense涵義3.五種詞語語義關系第八十頁，共146頁。LudwigWittgenstein:‘Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage’.Meaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts.Reference（指稱）:howlanguagereferstotherealphysicalworld(語言指代外部物質世界)Sense（涵義(hányì)）:inherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandthemeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.(語言形式的內(nèi)在意義)第八十一頁，共146頁。conceptsymbolizes

referstosymbolreferent(word)standsfor(object)第八十二頁，共146頁。

dogSense:adomesticatedcaninemammalReference:第八十三頁，共146頁。Synonymy同義(tónɡyì)Synonymy同義(tónɡyì):samenessorsimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

第八十四頁，共146頁。同義(tónɡyì)分類舉例dialecticalsynonym地域同義詞：舉例(jǔlì):fallandautumn,flatandapartmentstylisticsynonym風格同義詞：舉例(jǔlì):copandpolice,kidandoffspringcollocationalsynonym搭配同義詞：舉例(jǔlì):accuseof,chargewith,rebukeforSemanticallydifferentsynonym語義稍有不同的同義詞:舉例(jǔlì):surpriseandastound,blameandrebuke第八十五頁，共146頁。Antonymy

反義Antonymy反義:oppositenessofmeaning.Wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningarecalledantonyms.Antonymy反義關系分類：gradableantonymy等級反義complementaryantonymy互補(hùbǔ)反義converseantonymy反向反義第八十六頁，共146頁。Gradableantonymy等級(děngjí)反義young--------middle-aged---------------oldbig--------middle-sized---------------smallgood-------------average-----------------bad第八十七頁，共146頁。Complementaryantonymy互補(hùbǔ)反義alive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyodd:evenpass:failboy:girlhit:miss第八十八頁，共146頁。Converseantonymy反向(fǎnxiànɡ)反義

buy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:afterhost:guestemployer:employee第八十九頁，共146頁。Hyponymy上下(shàngxià)義關系Hyponymy上下(shàngxià)義:referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate/hypernym上義詞:themoregeneraltermHyponym下義詞:themorespecificterm第九十頁，共146頁。舉例:hypernym上義詞:animalHyponym下義詞:bird,fish,tiger,cat如何記憶(jìyì):hyper---向上hype炒作hypo---向下hypothesis假設第九十一頁，共146頁。

Animal

birdfishinsectanimal

humananimal

tigerlionelephant...第九十二頁，共146頁。Polysemy一詞多義Polysemy:thesameonewordhasmorethanonemeaning.Suchawordiscalledpolysemicword.舉例:Fish:1.魚2.魚肉(yúròu)3.水生動物4.捕魚5.尋找第九十三頁，共146頁。Homonymy同音(tónɡyīn)/同形異義詞:wordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Identicalinsound:homophones同音(tónɡyīn)詞Identicalinspelling:homograph同形詞Identicalinboth:completehomonyms同音(tónɡyīn)同形詞第九十四頁，共146頁。homophones同音詞：舉例(jǔlì):knightandnight,pieceandpeacehomograph同形詞舉例(jǔlì):tear(v)andtear(n),lead(v)andlead(n)completehomonyms同音同形詞:fast(adj)andfast(n)第九十五頁，共146頁。如何區(qū)分同音同形和一詞多義現(xiàn)象:beauty,fish,ball,scalebeauty:美麗；美女fish:魚；魚肉；水生動物；捕魚；尋找ball:球；舞會scale:規(guī)模；魚鱗看其多個意義之間是否有關聯(lián)，如果有就是(jiùshì)一詞多義，沒有就是(jiùshì)同音同形詞第九十六頁，共146頁。Pragmatics語用學

考點(kǎodiǎn):定義和與語義學的區(qū)別：studyofmeaningincontextorinuse言語行為理論（兩位理論家和三種行為）會話原則第九十七頁，共146頁。2.SpeechActTheoryJohnAustin(1911-1960)HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)MainIdea:thingscanbedonewithwords第九十八頁，共146頁。Constatives(敘事(xùshì)句)vs.performatives（施為句）Constatives（敘事(xùshì)句）:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish.第九十九頁，共146頁。Performatives（施為(shīwéi)句）:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Performativeverbs:name,bet,etc.第一百頁，共146頁。ThreeSpeechActs(三種(sānzhǒnɡ)言語行為)Alocutionaryact(言內(nèi)行為(xíngwéi)):theactofutteringwords,phrase,sentences.Itisanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryact（言外行為(xíngwéi)）:anactofexpressionspeaker’sintention;itisanactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryact（言后行為(xíngwéi)）:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.第一百零一頁，共146頁。三種話語行為(xíngwéi)-舉例老師(lǎoshī)對學生說:Youhaveleftthedooropen.Locutionaryact(言內(nèi)行為):theactofutteringthewordsof“you”,“have”,“l(fā)eft”,“the”,“door”,“open”Illocutinaryact(言外行為):theactofexpressingtheteacher’sintentionofaskingthestudenttoclosethedoor.Perlocutionaryact(言后行為):theeffectoftheutterance:studentgoestoclosethedoor第一百零二頁，共146頁。103IllocutionaryActTheory美國哲學家JohnSearle(約翰-塞爾，1932-)在Austin理論基礎上把言外行為(xíngwéi)進一步分為5類：陳述（assertives），指示(directives)，承諾(commissives)，表達(expressives)，宣告（declaratives）第一百零三頁，共146頁。ConversationalImplicature（會話含義(hányì)理論）Theorist：英國(yīnɡɡuó)語言學家HerbertPaulGrice(格萊斯，1913-1988)MainIdea:Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.第一百零四頁，共146頁。TheCooperativePrinciple(CP，合作(hézuò)原則)

MaximofQuality（數(shù)量(shùliàng)準則）MaximofQuantity（質量準則）MaximofRelation（關系準則）MaximofManner（方式準則）第一百零五頁，共146頁。TheCooperativePrinciple(CP，合作(hézuò)原則)

MaximofQuality（數(shù)量準則）Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;MaximofQuantity（質量準則）MaximofRelation（關系(guānxì)準則）MaximofManner（方式準則）第一百零六頁，共146頁。MaximofQuality（數(shù)量準則）MaximofQuantity（質量準則）：Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.MaximofRelation（關系(guānxì)準則）MaximofManner（方式準則）第一百零七頁，共146頁。MaximofQuality（數(shù)量準則）MaximofQuantity（質量(zhìliàng)準則）MaximofRelation（關系準則）：Berelative.MaximofManner（方式準則）第一百零八頁，共146頁。MaximofQuality（數(shù)量準則）MaximofQuantity（質量(zhìliàng)準則）MaximofRelation（關系準則）MaximofManner(方式準則)：Beperspicuous.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.第一百零九頁，共146頁。Macro-Linguistics

宏觀(hóngguān)語言學第一百一十頁，共146頁。Sociolinguistics社會語言(yǔyán)學1.定義2.語言(yǔyán)變體languagevariety3.雙語第一百一十一頁，共146頁。Sociolinguistics社會語言(yǔyán)學1定義：Thesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Speech語言(yǔyán)變體雙語第一百一十二頁，共146頁。Sociolinguistics社會語言(yǔyán)學定義Speechvariety/languagevariety語言(yǔyán)變體:refertoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.雙語第一百一十三頁，共146頁。speakerregionageracegendersocialclasssituation第一百一十四頁，共146頁。Languagevariety語言變體regionRegionaldialect地域方言SocialclassSociolect社會方言genderGenderdialect性別方言ageAgedialect年齡方言raceEthnicdialect種族方言situationRegister/situationaldialect語域第一百一十五頁，共146頁。Idiolect個人方言RegionaldialectSociolectAgedialectGenderdialectEthnicdialect第一百一十六頁，共146頁。Pidgin(洋涇浜語/皮欽語)：aspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeaksdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.上海洋涇浜

第一百一十七頁，共146頁。上海話中的洋涇浜英語“蹩腳”（BILGE，船底污水，引申為骯臟的、下三濫的、劣質的）“癟三”（BEGSIR，乞丐先生，用來形容叫花子、難民、逃荒者等各式窮人，后引申為最廣泛的罵人用語之一。“赤佬”是英語“CHEAT”（欺騙）和中文“佬”的混生詞語，一個魯迅(lǔxùn)時代最流行的洋涇浜俚語（隱語）。第一百一十八頁，共146頁。119Frompidgintocreoles(克里奧語):Pidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageasaresultofintermarriage,itisspokenathomeandlearnedbychildrenasamothertongue.舉例(jǔlì).French-basedHaitianCreole,EnglishbasedjamaicaCreole第一百一十九頁，共146頁。Sociolinguistics社會語言學定義(dìngyì)語言變體雙語第一百二十頁，共146頁。Bilingualism(雙語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng))Diglossia(高低雙語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng))Multilingualism（多語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng)）第一百二十一頁，共146頁。Bilingualism(雙語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng)):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.舉例：Canada(FrenchandEnglish),Wales(WelshandEnglish)Diglossia(高低雙語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng))Multilingualism（多語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng)）第一百二十二頁，共146頁。Bilingualism(雙語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng))Diglossia(高低雙語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng)):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.舉例：Switzerland:HighGermanasthestandard(public,official)SwissGermanasthevernacular(informal,daily)Multilingualism（多語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng)）第一百二十三頁，共146頁。Bilingualism(雙語現(xiàn)象)Diglossia(高低(gāodī)雙語現(xiàn)象)Multilingualism（多語現(xiàn)象）:alinguisticsituationinwhichmorethantwolanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.舉例：Singapore(English,Chinese,Malay)第一百二十四頁，共146頁。Bilingualism(雙語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng)):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakersDiglossia(高低雙語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng)):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplayMultilingualism（多語現(xiàn)象(xiànxiàng)）:alinguisticsituationmorethantwovarietiesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers第一百二十五頁，共146頁。人類語言學AnthropologicalLinguistics定義:studyoftherelationshipbetweencultureandlanguage假說：Sapir-WhorfHypothesis(薩丕爾-沃爾夫假說)：structureofthelanguagepeopleuseinfluencesthewaytheythinkandbehave(簡言之,語言影響(yǐngxiǎng)人的思想行為)第一百二十六頁，共146頁。127Sapir-WhorfHypothesisEdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.

Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.Linguisticrelativity:differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.第一百二十七頁，共146頁。128English:horseshoeFrench:feracheval

——ironforhorseGerman:hufeisen——hoofironThe