考研英語(yǔ)一及答案復(fù)習(xí)素材

2022年全國(guó)碩士研究生入學(xué)考試英語(yǔ)真題

SectionIUseofEnglish

Directions:

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,CorD

onANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

①TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportantissue

recently.②Thecourtcannot]itslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw2justicesbehave

likepoliticians.③Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinwaysthat3thecourt'sreputation

forbeingindependentandimpartial.

?JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.②Thatkindofactivity

makesitlesslikelythatthecourt'sdecisionswillbe4asimpartialjudgments.③Partofthe

problemisthatthejusticesarenot5byanethicscode.@Attheveryleast,thecourtshould

makeitself6tothecodeofconductthat7totherestofthefederaljudiciary.

?Thisandothersimilarcases8thequestionofwhetherthereisstilla9betweenthe

courtandpolitics.

①TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlaw10havingauthorityapartfrompolitics.

②Theygavejusticespermanentpositions11theywouldbefreeto12thoseinpowerand

havenoneedto13politicalsupport.(3)Ourlegalsystemwasdesignedtosetlawapartfrom

politicspreciselybecausetheyaresoclosely14.

?Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedinfundamentalsocial

15likelibertyandproperty.②Whenthecourtdealswithsocialpolicydecisions,thelawit16

isinescapablypolitical—whichiswhydecisionssplitalongideologicallinesaresoeasily_17

asunjust.

?Thejusticesmust18doubtsaboutthecourt'slegitimacybymakingthemselves19to

thecodeofconduct.②Thatwouldmaketheirrulingsmorelikelytobeseenasseparatefrom

politicsand,20,convincingaslaw.

1.AemphasizeBmaintainCmodifyDrecognize

2.AwhenBlestCbeforeDunless

3.ArestoredBweakenedCestablishedDeliminated

4.AchallengedBcompromisedCsuspectedDaccepted

5.AadvancedBcaughtCboundDfounded

6.AresistantBsubjectCimmuneDprone

7.AresortsBsticksCleadsDapplies

8.AevadeBraiseCdenyDsettle

9.AlineBbarrierCsimilarityDconflict

10.AbyBasCthroughDtowards

11.AsoBsinceCprovidedDthough

12.AserveBsatisfyCupsetDreplace

13.AconfirmBexpressCcultivateDoffer

14.AguardedBfollowedCstudiedDtied

15.AconceptsBtheoriesCdivisionsDconceptions

16.AexcludesBquestionsCshapesDcontrols

17.AdismissedBreleasedCrankedDdistorted

18.AsuppressBexploitCaddressDignore

19.AaccessibleBamiableCagreeableDaccountable

20.AbyallmeansBatallcostsCinawordDasaresult

SectionIIReadingComprehension

PartA

Directions:

Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,B,CorD.

MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)

Text1

?Comeon—Everybody'sdoingit.②Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationandhalf

forcing,iswhatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.③Itusuallyleadsto

nogood-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.@Butinhernewbook,JointheClub,TinaRosenberg

contendsthatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforcethroughwhatshecallsthesocialcure,in

whichorganizationsandofficialsusethepowerofgroupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprove

theirlivesandpossiblytheworld.

?Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexamplesofthesocialcurein

action:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogramcalledRageAgainsttheHaze

setsouttomakecigarettesuncool.②InSouthAfrica,anHIV-preventioninitiativeknownas

LoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafesexamongtheirpeers.

①Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.②Hercritiqueofthe

lamenessofmanypublic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilizepeerpressurefor

healthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawedunderstandingofpsychology.(3)“Darcto

bedifferent,pleasedon'tsmoke!"pleadsonebillboardcampaignaimedatreducingsmoking

amongteenagers—teenagers,whodesirenothingmorethanfittingin.④Rosenbergargues

convincinglythatpublic-healthadvocatesoughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledat

applyingpeerpressure.

①Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.②Jointhe

Clubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationofthesocialand

biologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.③Themostglaringflawofthesocialcure

asit'spresentedhereisthatitdoesn'tworkverywellforverylong.④RageAgainsttheHaze

failedoncestatefundingwascut.?EvidencethattheLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchanges

islimitedandmixed.

①There'snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.②An

emergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits—aswellasnegativeones—spread

throughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.③Thisisasubtleformofpeerpressure:

weunconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.

?Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselectourpeer

groupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.②It'sliketheteacherwhobreaksupthe

troublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwithbetter-behavedclassmates.③Thetacticnever

reallyworks.@Andthat'stheproblemwithasocialcureengineeredfromtheoutside:inthereal

world,asinschool,weinsistonchoosingourownfriends.

21.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesas.

Aasupplementtothesocialcure

Bastimulustogroupdynamics

Canobstacletoschoolprogress

Dacauseofundesirablebehaviors

22.Rosenbergholdsthatpublic-healthadvocatesshould.

Arecruitprofessionaladvertisers

Bleamfromadvertisers*experience

Cstayawayfromcommercialadvertisers

Drecognizethelimitationsofadvertisements

23.Intheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto.

Aadequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors

Beffectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure

Cillustratethefunctionsofstatefunding

□producealong-lastingsocialeffect

24.Paragraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviors.

Aisharmfultoournetworksoffriends

Bwillmisleadbehavioralstudies

Coccurswithoutourrealizingit

Deanproducenegativehealthhabits

25.Theauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureis.

AharmfulBdesirableCprofoundDquestionable

Text2

①Adealisadeal-except,apparently,whenEntergyisinvolved.②Thecompany,amajor

energysupplierinNewEngland,provokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenit

announceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestrictnuclear

regulations.

?Instead,thecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnot：

challengetheconstitutionalityofVermont'srulesinfederalcourt,aspartofadesperateeffortto

keepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.②It'sastunningmove.

①Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2022,whenthecorporationboughtVermont'sonly

nuclearpowerplant,anagingreactorinVernon.②Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalfbr

thesale,thecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2022.③In

2022,thestatewentastepfurther,requiringthatanyextensionoftheplant'slicensebesubjectto

Vermontlegislature^approval.?Then,too,thecompanywentalong.

?EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitments,oritsimplydidn't

foreseewhatwouldhappennext.②Astringofaccidents,includingthepartialcollapseofa

coolingtowerin2022andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakage,raisedserious

questionsaboutbothVermontYankee'ssafetyandEntergy'smanagement-especiallyafterthe

companymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.③EnragedbyEntergy'sbehavior,the

VermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension.

①Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2022agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe

2022legislation,andthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.

②Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdo

havesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpower,legalscholarssaythatVermontcasewilloffer

aprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.③Certainly,therearevalidconcerns

aboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.?Buthad

Entergykeptitsword,thatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint.

①ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadyso

damagedthatithasnothinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.②Butthereshouldbe

consequences.?Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapublictrust.?Entergyruns11other

reactorsintheUnitedStates,includingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.?Pledgingtorun

Pilgrimsafely,thecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20

years.@ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)reviewsthecompany'sapplication,it

shouldkeepinmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth.

26.Thephrase“renegingon〃(Line3.para.l)isclosestinmeaningto.

AcondemningBreaffirmingCdishonoringDsecuring

27.Byenteringintothe2022agreement,Entergyintendedto.

AobtainprotectionfromVermontregulators

Bseekfavorfromthefederallegislature

Cacquireanextensionofitsbusinesslicense

Dgetpermissiontopurchaseapowerplant

28.AccordingtoParagraph4,Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithits.

Amanagerialpractices

Btechnicalinnovativeness

Cfinancialgoals

□businessvision

29.Intheauthor'sview,theVennontcasewilltest.

AEntergy'scapacitytofulfillallitspromises

Bthematureofstates'patchworkregulations

Cthefederalauthorityovernuclearissues

Dthelimitsofstates'powerovernuclearissues

30.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat.

AEntergy'sbusinesselsewheremightbeaffected

BtheauthorityoftheNRCwillbedefied

CEntergywillwithdrawitsPlymouthapplication

DVermont^reputationmightbedamaged

Text3

?Intheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldarewaitingtobe

observedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientificmethodtocarryouttheir

work.②Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discoveryfrequentlyfollowsanambiguousand

complicatedroute.③Weaimtobeobjective,butwecannotescapethecontextofouruniquelife

experience.④Priorknowledgeandinterestinfluencewhatweexperience,whatwethinkour

experiencesmean,andthesubsequentactionswetake.?Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,

error,andself-deceptionabound.

?Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.?Similartonewly

stakedminingclaims,theyarefullofpotential.③Butittakescollectivescrutinyandacceptance

totransformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.④Thisisthecredibilityprocess,through

whichtheindividualresearcher^me,here,nowbecomesthecommunity'sanyone,anywhere,

anytime.?Objectiveknowledgeisthegoal,notthestartingpoint.

?Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectualcredit.②Bui,

unlikewithminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappensnext.(3)Withinthe

complexsocialstructureofthescientificcommunity,researchersmakediscoveries;editorsand

reviewersactasgatekeepersbycontrollingthepublicationprocess;otherscientistsusethenew

findingtosuittheirownpurposes;andfinally,thepublic(includingotherscientists)receivesthe

newdiscoveryandpossiblyaccompanyingtechnology.@Asadiscoveryclaimworksitsway

throughthecommunity,theinteractionandconfrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefs

aboutthescienceandthetechnologyinvolvedtransformsanindividuafsdiscoveryclaimintothe

community'scrediblediscovery.

①Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.②First,scientificworktendsto

focusonsomeaspectofprevailingknowledgethatisviewedasincompleteorincorrect.③Little

rewardaccompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatisalreadyknownandbelieved.@The

goalisnew-search,notre-search.@Notsurprisingly,newlypublisheddiscoveryclaimsand

crediblediscoveriesthatappeartobeimportantandconvincingwillalwaysbeopentochallenge

andpotentialmodificationorrefutationbyfutureresearchers.?Second,noveltyitselffrequently

provokesdiXelief.?NobelLaureateandphysiologistAlbertSzent-Gyorgyioncedescribed

discoveryas“seeingwhateverybodyhasseenandthinkingwhatnobodyhasthought/'?But

thinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtellingotherswhattheyhavemissedmaynotchange

theirviews.?Sometimesyearsarerequiredfortrulynoveldiscoveryclaimstobeacceptedand

appreciated.

?Intheend,credibility“happens”toadiscoveryclaim-aprocessthatcorrespondsto

whatphilosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthemind.②"Wereasontogether,

challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother'sreasoningandeachother'sconceptionsofreason//

31.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterizedbyits.

Auncertaintyandcomplexity

Bmisconceptionanddeceptiveness

Clogicalityandobjectivity

Dsystematicnessandregularity

32.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatcredibilityprocessrequires.

AstrictinspectionBsharedefforts

CindividualwisdomDpersistentinnovation

33.Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit.

Ahasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic

Bhasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity

Chasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers

Dhasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists

34.AlbertSzent-Gyorgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethat.

Ascientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges

Bdiscoveriestodayinspirefutureresearch

Ceffortstomakediscoveriesarejustified

Dscientificworkcallsforacriticalmind

35.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetest

ANoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.

BCollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.

CEvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.

DChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.

Text4

?IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobablyrepresentcivil

servant.②WhenHo能'sTeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,onlyoneintenAmerican

governmentworkersbelongedtoaunion;now36%do.③In2022thenumberofunionistsin

America'spublicsectorpassedthatoftheirfellowmembersintheprivatesector.④InBritain,

morethanhalfofpublic-sectorworkersbutonlyabout15%ofprivate-sectoronesareunionized.

?Therearethreereasonsforthepublic-sectorunions,thriving.②First,theycanshutthings

downwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.③Second,theyaremostlybrightand

well-educated.?AquarterofAmerica'spublic-sectorworkershaveauniversitydegree.⑤Third,

theynowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.⑥Someoftheirtiesgobackalongway.⑦Britain's

LaborParty,asitsnameimplies,haslongbeenassociatedwithtradeunionism.?Itscurrent

leader,EdMiliband,oweshispositiontovotesfrompublic-sectorunions.

?Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.②MarkBaldassareofthe

PublicPolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate'sbudgetispatrolledby

unions.③Theteachers9unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAonprisonsandavarietyof

laborgroupsonhealthcare.

①I(mǎi)nmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthanintheprivateone.

@Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.(3)Politicianshaverepeatedly

“backloaded"public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodestbutaddingtoholidays

andespeciallypensionsthatarealreadygenerous.

①Reformhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,where

charterschools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.②Eventhoughthereis

plentyofevidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemostimportantvariable,teachers5unions

havefoughtagainstgettingridofbadonesandpromotinggoodones.

①Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebeguntoclampdown.②

InWisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainstScottWalker,thehardline

Republicangovernor.③Butmanywithinthepublicsectorsufferunderthecurrentsystem,too.

①JohnDonahueatHarvard'sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsofculturein

Westerncivilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhighachievers.②Theonly

Americanpublic-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000ayearareuniversitysports

coachesandthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.③Bankers'fatpaypacketshaveattractedmuch

criticism,butapublic-sectorsystemthatdoesnotrewardhighachieversmaybeamuchbigger

problemforAmerica.

36.Itcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthat.

ATeamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers

BJimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant

Cunionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership

Dthegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists

37.WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2

APublic-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.

BEducationisrequiredfbrpublic-sectorunionmembership.

CLaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.

DPublic-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.

38.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris.

AillegallysecuredBindirectlyaugmented

CexcessivelyincreasedDfairlyadjusted

39.TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions.

Aoftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem

Beanchangepeople'spoliticalattitudes

Cmaybeabarriertopublic-sectorreforms

Daredominantinthegovernment

40.JohnDonahue'sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof.

Adisapproval

Ctolerance

Bappreciation

Dindifference

PartB

Directions:

Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45,choosethemost

suitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblanks.Therearetwoextrachoices,

whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowandrealisethat

youareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinnerthanabrown-paperenvelope,

oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.

Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue.

Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,entrepreneursand

visionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionasatypewriterandprinting

press,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,pianoandradio,themailaswellasthemail

canier.(41)

Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethatservesasthe

modeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplaceofpraiseandcritique.The

computeristhe21stcentury'sculturemachine.

Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotreadwithcaution.

(42)Icallitasecretwarfbrtworeasons.First,mostpeopledonotrealisethatthereare

strongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Second,the

majorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificance

ofwhattheyaredoing.

Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmakenests.Yet

forthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansareunique

復(fù)習(xí)重點(diǎn)

intheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluous

materialgoods—paintings,sculptureandarchitecture-andsuperfluousexperiences—music,

literature,religionandphilosophy.(43)

Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuckindownload

mode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidofproductionremains,witha

smallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifying

thatcontent,andahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.(44)

Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevisionasksof

anyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.

(45)

WhatcountsasmeaningfuluploadingMydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof

"stickiness'1-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.

AOfcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureandultimately

whatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskills,butfailingto

movebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity.

BApplicationsliketumblr,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,wordsandothermedia

increativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusing,entertaining

andenlighteningothers.

CNotonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalso

managedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday.

DThisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloadingand

uploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-whoseoutcomewillshapeour

collectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine.

EThechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformat

beingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCDplayers.

FOnereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatfbrthepasthalf-century,

muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium—television——and

televisionisdefinedbydownloading.

GJThenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflow,to

encouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningfuluploading.

PartC

Directions:

ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.Your

translationshouldbewrittencarefullyonANSWERSHEET2.(10points)

SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchfbruniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthescientific

enterprise.Insomeways,thisquestfbrcommonalitiesdefinesscience.Newton,slawsofmotion

andDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferentphenomenaintoasingleexplicatory

framework.

(46)Inphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationloitsextreme,andseeksa

theoryofeverything-asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.Itisbecominglessclear,

however,thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhedimensionsanduniversesthatit

mightentail.Nonetheless,unificationofsortsremainsamajorgoal.

Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciencestoo.(47)

Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustification,forifallhumanssha】ecommonorigins,itseems

復(fù)習(xí)重點(diǎn)

reasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.

Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtshipritualsmightallbeconsideredtobeformsof

sexualselection,perhapstheworld'slanguages,music,socialandreligiouscustomsandeven

historyaregovernedbyuniversalfeatures.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatisshared

mightenableustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehaviouraroseandwhatguidesitin

evolulionaryorcognitiveterms.

That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublishedonlinetoday

suppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandandhiscolleaguesconsider

theevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwopreviousattemptstofinduniversalityinlanguage.

ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomsky,whosuggestedthathumansare

bornwithaninnatelanguage-acquisitioncapacitythatdictatesauniversalgrammar.Afew

generativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldtheentirefundamentalstructureofalanguage,which

iswhychildrencanlearnitsoquickly.

(49)Thesecond,byJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachtouniversality,

identifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguages,whichareconsideredto

represenlbiasesthatresullfromcognitiveconstraints.

Grayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamilytreesthat

betweenthemrepresentmorethan2,000languages.(50)Chomsky'sgrammarshouldshow

pattemsoflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamilytreeorthepathwaytrackedthrough

it,whereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredictsstrongco?dependenciesbetweenparticulartypesof

word-orderrelations.Neitherofthesepatternsisborneoutbytheanalysis,suggestingthatthe

structuresofthelanguagesarelineage-specificandnotgovernedbyuniversals.