畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯-消費者決策

英文文獻譯文：下面的消費者研究將會說明在一個消費者社會里很多的消費者行為被社會心理學(xué)家研究，這包括消費者刺激和消費者行為。因此，消費者環(huán)境為社會現(xiàn)象和行為的研究提供了一個豐富的領(lǐng)域。消費者決策無所不在不管我們在何時何地，我們都在不停地制定消費者決定。我們在健身館注冊，經(jīng)常坐飛機去度假，做體檢，選一個餐館，為了一個更健康的生活方式少吃甜食。實際上，我們的很多日常決定沒有包括較重要的決定，比如，嫁給誰或是否要小孩，但包含了是否喝茶或咖啡，用卡或付現(xiàn)金，或其他的一些瑣碎的決定。而且，我們?nèi)粘５暮芏嘞M者行為甚至是無意的。相反，它們可能是出于習(xí)慣，比如打開美國有線電視新聞網(wǎng)絡(luò)來了解新聞或搜索谷歌來找一些資料。一個人在一天中充滿了無盡的瑣碎的消費決定或者受以前決定的影響，在早上從選擇牙膏的品牌到工作后選擇看哪部電影。消費者的選擇影響社會認(rèn)同感的功能雖然對大多數(shù)人來說是一個消費者可能不會確定他們的身份，但他們的消費決定仍然是高度身份相關(guān)的，就它們對應(yīng)到更大的價值觀和信仰，表達自我的重要方面。素食主義者是不忍心看到動物被殺害和一些人抵制買那些被認(rèn)為是由兒童勞工制成的衣服。一些人買豐田普瑞斯出于是對環(huán)境的關(guān)注；另一些人抵制日本汽車，比如普瑞斯，是為了幫助當(dāng)?shù)氐钠嚬I(yè)。在這方面，甚至在可口可樂和百事可樂之間選擇是不必要的瑣事。人們不能在盲目的測試中區(qū)分可口可樂和百事可樂，或他們更喜歡百事可樂，然而可能還是堅持可口可樂作為一種文化標(biāo)志。嘗試改變可口可樂的配方會使反對者生氣。顯然，消費品和品牌不僅滿足實際的需要。在一個世界，供過于求和品牌的區(qū)分，很多消費者選則品牌是為了表達他們的個性或使他們自己屈服于他們的欲望。他們不是簡單的使用蘋果；他們是蘋果的使用者并認(rèn)為換另一個牌子的個人電腦會像是一個背叛者一樣。從飲料到電腦，品牌成為一種意識形態(tài)。人們可能也會把產(chǎn)品的認(rèn)知作為自身的延伸；比如，他們可能認(rèn)同他們的車就像他們對待他們的寵物一樣。同樣地，品牌可能會定義為社會群。哈利戴維森俱樂部是一個傳奇的例子；一個因特網(wǎng)搜索俱樂部揭示幾乎每一種汽車的品牌和型號。在我的家鄉(xiāng)，我發(fā)現(xiàn)一個大眾新甲殼蟲俱樂部宣稱要建立新甲殼蟲司機之間的聯(lián)系，通過組織社會賽事。在路上，開同一種汽車型號的司機經(jīng)常會相互打招呼。顯然，開同一型號的汽車足以建立社會親近感。品牌，產(chǎn)品和消費習(xí)慣不僅有益于建立社會聯(lián)系，而且作為地位標(biāo)志，定義垂直和水平的社會界限。通過用特別的品牌或消費特定的產(chǎn)品，人們可以表達一種特定的生活方式或嘗試傳遞某種特定的社會印象。不管你對飲料的選擇是否是紅酒或是啤酒，卡布齊諾咖啡或花草茶，你的選擇表達了更多，不僅僅是你對飲料的品味。消費選擇影響社會知覺假定品牌和產(chǎn)品是社會表現(xiàn)形式的一部分，這一點也不意外人們評判這些通過他們所使用的品牌和產(chǎn)品。特別是產(chǎn)品的社會認(rèn)知功能被用來依據(jù)目標(biāo)的推理和個性特征。同樣地，香煙、食物的選擇和食物的攝取量都顯示了影響社會表達形式。根據(jù)感知者的次文化，不同的個性特征被假設(shè)在于吸煙者和不吸煙者的對比。不同的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)健康的飲食者被認(rèn)為是比那些飲食不健康的人更加的溫和，通常更加受歡迎。一個喝百事可樂的人和一個喝可口可樂人的爭論正如一個凱普萊特和一個蒙塔古的爭論，當(dāng)然，有點夸張，但很明顯品牌可能把群內(nèi)的成員和群外的成員區(qū)分開來。可能這在青少年中區(qū)別最大，那里的牛仔褲的牌子被確定為酷和大眾化。然而，這種現(xiàn)象不只局限于青年文化，之前的社區(qū)例子就像是被證實的所定義的共享品牌。總之，從濕刮胡刀與干刮胡刀的對比到開保時捷與開斯瑪特的對比，消費者行為被用作一種信息在個人認(rèn)知中。很可能，這樣的信息也一樣用來顯示這些消費者的行為。女人身上所穿的皮衣而引起的消費是一個經(jīng)典的例子。消費者行為的情感影響顯然，消費產(chǎn)品的使用和服務(wù)可能會讓人感到高興、滿意或生氣、不滿意。人們可能會從穿一件新衣而體會到快樂，或者感到痛苦。當(dāng)產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)失敗或引起不便，產(chǎn)品使用只是影響消費者情感的一個因素，僅僅是選擇和適應(yīng)另一種產(chǎn)品的行為。人們享受或不喜歡購物的體驗，他們可能從在不同產(chǎn)品的自由選擇中得到快樂，在大量的選擇中感到不知所措或感到沮喪。當(dāng)他們在有限的產(chǎn)品中找不到滿足他們特殊需要的產(chǎn)品，從這一事實中，他們都能體會得到欲望和一個自尊刺激,即他們能負(fù)擔(dān)得起的某一特定消費者的生活方式。很多的日常情感經(jīng)歷的因素包括消費者行為在一種或另一種方式中產(chǎn)生。消費者環(huán)境提供了獨一無二的社會交流但是，我們很少與我們的發(fā)型設(shè)計師和服務(wù)生產(chǎn)生緊密的聯(lián)系。然而，消費者環(huán)境天天提供了很多的社會交流。同樣，這些相互交流，即使是信念可能會構(gòu)成一種情感經(jīng)歷的資源?？Х葞煹奈⑿?，商店售貨員的贊美，看門人的友好幫助，這些例子揭示了與消費者有關(guān)的相互交流如何使我們感覺良好、值得的、被重視。然而粗暴的反應(yīng)產(chǎn)生相反的效果。而且，這些社會角色被可能被消費者環(huán)境定義為了不是其他角色固有的某些特定的行為，相互交流和經(jīng)驗提供了獨一無二的機會。作為一個顧客或消費者使一方得到尊重，禮貌對待和滿足需求。對某些人來說，這可能是他們生活的唯一角色是能給他們掌握有限的感覺和讓其他人滿足他們的需求。舉另一個例子，投訴是社會交流的一種形式，它通常發(fā)生在消費者環(huán)境里。鑒于消費者環(huán)境對社會經(jīng)驗和社會交流的重要性，消費者語境為研究這些社會行為提供了重要機會。不是每一個消費者通過這些階段當(dāng)他們做決定買買東西時，實際上，其中的一些階段可能會跳過，這取決于購買物的類型。對消費者進行研究的原因，通過理解下列問題幫助公司和機構(gòu)提高他們的營銷策略：消費者怎么想、感覺、理由和對不同物品（如品牌、產(chǎn)品）的篩選的心理；消費者的行為當(dāng)他們購物或作其他的營銷決定；消費者知識或信息獲得能力的限制影響決定和營銷結(jié)果；市場營銷者們怎樣才能適應(yīng)和提高他們的營銷競爭力合營銷策略來更有效率的吸引消費者。貝爾奇給出了消費者行為的官方定義：過程和人們所從事的活動當(dāng)他們?yōu)榱藵M足他們的需求進行研究、選擇、購買、使用、評價和處理產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)。行為發(fā)生在個人或者在此背景下出現(xiàn)的一個群體或一個組織。消費者行為包括了使用和處理產(chǎn)品以及研究產(chǎn)品怎樣被買。產(chǎn)品的使用一般是市場營銷者很感興趣的，因為這可能會影響一個產(chǎn)品怎樣處于最佳位置或者我們怎呀才能鼓勵增加消費。尼科西亞模式集中于公司和它的潛在客戶之間的關(guān)系。公司與消費者交流通過它的營銷信息或廣告和消費者對要買產(chǎn)品的信息的反應(yīng)?？吹竭@個模式我們將發(fā)現(xiàn)公司和消費者之間是相互聯(lián)系的，公司想要影響消費者，消費者通過他的決定來影響公司決策。三：購買行為尼科西亞模式被分為四個主要領(lǐng)域：領(lǐng)域1：顧客態(tài)度根據(jù)公司的信息。第一個領(lǐng)域分為兩個次領(lǐng)域。第一個次領(lǐng)域處理公司的營銷環(huán)境和交流努力這影響顧客的態(tài)度，競爭的環(huán)境和目標(biāo)市場的特點。次領(lǐng)域二細(xì)分了顧客的特點，如經(jīng)驗，個性和他怎樣認(rèn)知對產(chǎn)品的宣傳思想，在這個階段顧客形成了對公司產(chǎn)品的態(tài)度根據(jù)他對產(chǎn)品信息的掌握。領(lǐng)域2：研究和評價消費者會開始研究另一個公司的品牌和評價這個品牌通過對比其他的牌子。在這種情況下，公司動員消費者購買它的牌子。領(lǐng)域3：購買的行為動機的結(jié)果將會上升通過說服消費者從一個零售商那里購買這個公司的產(chǎn)品。所羅門模型的對比過程表2.7解釋了一些問題貫穿在消費過程的各個階段。轉(zhuǎn)換在二個或多個組織或人里給出或收到一些有價值的東西，它是市場營銷不可或缺的一部分。所羅門也提出了消費者行為包含了不同的因素。購買產(chǎn)品和使用產(chǎn)品的人可能不是同一個人。人們可能也會起到影響購買過程的作用。很多市場營銷活動，他們建議應(yīng)集中適應(yīng)于產(chǎn)品提供目標(biāo)市場需求的特殊環(huán)境。它也一樣會刺激已經(jīng)存在的需求通過廣告和促銷，而不是創(chuàng)造需求。這些定義和模式到目前為止已經(jīng)被呈現(xiàn)出來了，他們來自普通的市場營銷理論。旅游就其本質(zhì)而言是一種服務(wù)而不是一種產(chǎn)品。它可能對消費者行為有很大影響。表2.8消費者行為的刺激反應(yīng)模式該模式分離出在購買行為方面的激勵因素和決定因素重要的影響，同時也強調(diào)某個機構(gòu)能對消費者購買過程使用的溝通渠道。史莫爾發(fā)展一個模型假設(shè)消費者的決策是四種元素的一種結(jié)果如下：旅游刺激，包括導(dǎo)游書，報道來自其他旅游人員、廣告和促銷旅游行為的個人的和社會的決定因素包括動機、要求和期望外部變量，包括旅游目的地的形象，信心貿(mào)易中介機構(gòu)和一些限制如成本和時間目的地服務(wù)業(yè)的特點和特征，如在察覺到成本和價值，景點的范圍和設(shè)施提供的聯(lián)系消費者取得積極或消極成見根據(jù)他們具有不同的人口（年齡，性別，宗教）協(xié)會，社會經(jīng)濟（收入，職業(yè)），文化/民族（種族，生活方式），或政治，社會意識形態(tài)領(lǐng)域。有形產(chǎn)品的選擇涉及高度（如服裝，珠寶）和良好的服務(wù)，以便與他人共用（例如，禮品，在娛樂性使用的產(chǎn)品）通常是由社會價值導(dǎo)向。例如，一個特定的使汽車是被選中的功能表現(xiàn)比其誘發(fā)的社會形象。即使產(chǎn)品一般被認(rèn)為是功能性或功利性，往往選擇是基于他們的社會價值觀。消費情緒是指在產(chǎn)品使用或引起消費體驗特別的情感反應(yīng)集，所描述的情感體驗和表達（如喜悅，憤怒和恐懼）的獨特類或相關(guān)，如情緒性范疇的結(jié)構(gòu)尺寸或愉快/不愉快，放松/行動，或平靜/激動。商品和服務(wù)往往伴隨著（如在觀看恐怖電影引起的恐懼）的情緒反應(yīng)。情感價值往往與（如宗教，原因）的審美選擇。然而，更多的物質(zhì)和功利的產(chǎn)品似乎也有情感價值。例如，有些食物引起的童年經(jīng)歷，通過他們與協(xié)會舒適的感覺。伊扎德（1977）發(fā)展了情感體驗的方法，介紹了基本的情感。他用十措詞來區(qū)分情緒基本種類：興趣，喜悅，驚訝，悲傷，憤怒，厭惡，蔑視，恐懼，羞恥和內(nèi)疚。這種方法已被廣泛使用的消費者研究。為了實施人際和個人建構(gòu)在這個框架中，我們用可自我意識的概念來表示消費者的反應(yīng)對社會的影響。自我意識被定義為個人的一貫的趨勢來直接關(guān)注向內(nèi)或向外。這個理論識別了自我意識的兩種不同類型的人。公開的自我意識的人特別注重其他人對他們的外面的看法，私人自我意識的人更加注重他們內(nèi)心的想法和感受。在這種情況下，我們假設(shè)消費的名譽可能會不同根據(jù)對其他人的敏感度。這種提議也和以前的研究一致，它展示了個人行為有所不同的人取決于他們對于人際影響的敏感度。杜布瓦和迪凱納強調(diào)說，“我們相信對消費者和品牌兩者之間的直接關(guān)系的分析一種提高理解這樣一種市場的鑰匙?！边@種原始的假設(shè)是那種私人的或公開的卓越產(chǎn)品的價值來自于這些物件的固有的交際狀況。很多存在的研究強調(diào)的是對于所扮演的角色地位，在信息交流的關(guān)于他們的擁有者和社會關(guān)系。英文文獻原文：FrontiersofSocialPsychologyArieW.Kruglanski、JosephP.ForgasFrontiersofSocialPsychologyisanewseriesofdomain-specifichandbooks.Thepurposeofeachvolumeistoprovidereaderswithacutting-edgeoverviewofthemostrecenttheoretical,methodological,andpracticaldevelopmentsinasubstantiveareaofsocialpsychology,ingreaterdepththanispossibleingeneralsocialpsychologyhandbooks.Theeditorsandcontributorsareallinternationallyrenownedscholarswhoseworkisatthecutting-edgeofresearch.Scholarly,yetaccessible,thevolumesintheFrontiersseriesareanessentialresourceforseniorundergraduates,postgraduates,researchers,andpractitioners,andaresuitableastextsinadvancedcoursesinspecificsubareasofsocialpsychology.SomeSocialAspectsofLivinginaConsumerSocietyThefollowingsketcheswillillustratethatinaconsumersocietymuchofthebehaviorstudiedbysocialpsychologistsrelatestoconsumerstimuliandconsumerbehavior.Thus,theconsumercontextprovidesarichfieldforthestudyofsocialphenomenaandbehavior.ConsumerDecisionsAreUbiquitousWhetherweareinthesupermarketornot,weareconstantlymakingconsumerdecisions.Weenrollingyms,useourfrequent-flyermilesforavacationresort,buyhealthcare,choosearestaurant,skipdessertforahealthierlifestyle.Infact,mostofourdailydecisionsdonotinvolveexistentialdecisionssuchaswhomtomarryorwhethertohavechildrenornot,butwhethertohaveteaorcoffee,useourcreditcardorpaycash,orotherseeminglytrivialdecisions.Moreover,manyofourdaily(consumer)behaviorsdonotevenrequireintentionaldecisions.Rather,theymaybehabitual,suchasswitchingtoCNNtogetthenewsoraccessingGooglewhenlookingupsomeinformation.Atypicaldayofatypicalpersonisfilledwithcountlessminorconsumerdecisionsortheconsequencesofpreviousdecisions,startingwiththebrandoftoothpasteinthemorningtochoosingamovieafterwork.ConsumerChoicesFulfillaSocial-IdentityFunctionAlthoughformostpeoplebeingaconsumermaynotbecentraltotheiridentity,manyoftheirconsumerdecisionsareneverthelesshighlyidentity-relevantinsofarastheycorrespondtoalargersetofvaluesandbeliefsandexpressimportantaspectsoftheself.Eatingavegetariandietbecauseonedoesnotwanttoendorsecrueltytoanimalsandboycottingclothespotentiallymadebychildlaborersaresomeexamples.SomepeoplebuyaPriusoutofenvironmentalconcerns;othersboycottJapanesecars—suchasthePrius—inordertohelpthelocalcarindustry.Inthisrespect,eventhechoicebetweenCokeandPepsiisnotnecessarilytrivial.PeoplewhocannotdiscriminateCokefromPepsiinablindtest,orwhopreferPepsi,mayneverthelessadheretoCokeasaculturalicon.AttemptstochangetheformulaofCokemetwithangryprotestsandopposition.Clearly,consumerproductsandbrandsdonotonlyfulfillutilitarianneeds(Olson&Mayo,2000;Shavitt,1990).Inaworldofoversupplyanddifferentiatingbrands,manyconsumerschoosebrandsinordertoexpresstheirpersonalityortoaffiliatethemselveswithdesiredothers.TheydonotsimplyuseaMac;theyareMacusers,andswitchingtoanotherbrandofPCwouldbeakintotreason.Fromsoftdrinkstocomputers,brandsmaybecomeanideology.Peoplemayalsoperceiveofproductsasextendedselves(Belk,1988);forexample,theymayidentifywiththeircarsjustastheydowithpets.Likewise,brandsmaydefinesocialgroups.TheHarley-DavidsonClubisalegendaryexample;anInternetsearchrevealedclubsforalmosteverycarbrandandmodel.Inmyhometown,IfoundaVolkswagenNewBeetleClubwhosestatedpurposeistocultivatecontactsbetweenNewBeetleDriversbyorganizingsocialevents(amongothers,avisittoacarcemetery).Ontheroad,driversofthesamecarmodeloftengreeteachother.Apparently,drivingthesamemodelissufficienttoestablishsocialcloseness.Brands,products,andconsumptionhabitsnotonlyhelptoestablishsocialconnectivitybutalsoserveasstatussymbols,definingverticalandhorizontalsocialboundaries.Byusingparticularbrandsorconsumingspecificproducts,peoplecanexpressacertainlifestyleorattempttoconveyaparticularsocialimpression.Subscribingtotheoperaconveysone’ssocialpositionjustasgoingtoamonstertruckracedoes.Whetheryourchoiceofdrinkiswineorbeer,cappuccinoorherbaltea,yourorderexpressesmorethanmerelyyourtasteinbeverages.ConsumerChoicesAffectSocialPerceptionGiventhatbrandsandproductsarepartofsocialexpression,itisnotsurprisingthatpeoplearejudgedbythebrandsandproductstheyuse.Inparticular,productsofasocial-identityfunctionareusedasbasesforinferencesaboutatarget’spersonalitytraits(Shavitt&Nelson,2000).Likewise,smoking,foodchoiceandamountoffoodintakehaveallbeenshowntoaffectsocialimpressions.Dependingonthesubcultureoftheperceiver(age,country),differentpersonalitytraitsareassumedinsmokerscomparedwithnonsmokers(e.g.,Cooper&Kohn,1989;Jones&Carroll,1998).Variousstudiesfoundthateatersofahealthierdietareperceivedasmorefeminineandingeneraljudgedmorefavorablythaneatersofunhealthyfoods(forareviewseeVartanian,Herman,&Polivy,2007).ArguingthataPepsidrinkeristoaCokedrinkerwhataCapuletwastoaMontagueis,ofcourse,anexaggeration,butclearlybrandsmaydistinguishingroupfromout-groupmembers.Possiblythisismostextremeamongteenagers,wherethebrandofjeansisperceivedtodeterminecoolnessandpopularity.Nevertheless,thephenomenonisnotlimitedtoteenculture,astestifiedbythepreviousexamplesofsocialcommunitiesdefinedbysharedbrands.Insum,fromwetversusdryshavingtodrivingaPorscheversusaSmart,consumerbehaviorisusedasacueinpersonperception.Mostlikely,suchcuesalsomanifestinbehaviortowardtheseconsumers.Physicalattacksonwomenwhowearfurareamostextremeexample.AffectiveConsequencesofConsumerBehaviorObviously,consumptionandtheuseofproductsandservicesmaygivepleasureandsatisfactionordispleasureanddissatisfaction.Peoplemayexperiencejoyfromwearinganewsweaterorsufferemotionalconsequenceswhenproductsorservicesfailorcauseinconvenience.Productuseisonlyonesourceofaffectiveconsumerexperiences.Themereactofchoosingandacquisitionisanother.Peopleenjoyordisliketheexperienceofshopping.Theymaytakepleasurefromthefreedomofsimplychoosingbetweendifferentoptions(e.g.,Botti&Iyengar,2004),feeloverwhelmedandconfusedbyanabundanceofoptions(e.g.,Huffman&Kahn,1998),orfeelfrustratedbyalimitedassortmentthatdoesnotmeettheirparticularneeds(e.g.,Chernev,2003).Theymayexperiencegratificationandaboostinself-esteemfromthefactthattheycanaffordaparticularconsumerlifestyleorgrudgethefactthattheycannot.Manydailysourcesofaffectiveexperiencesinvolveconsumerbehaviorinonewayoranother.TheConsumerContextProvidesUniqueSocialInteractionsGranted,werarelyformdeepandmeaningfulrelationshipswithourhairdressersandwaiters.Still,theconsumercontextaffordsmanysocialinteractionsoveraday.Again,theseinteractions—evenifbrief—mayconstituteasourceofaffectiveexperiences.Thesmileofthebarista,thecomplimentfromtheshop-assistant,andthefriendlyhelpfromtheconciergearejustafewexamplesofhowsuchconsumerrelatedinteractionsmaymakeusfeelgood,worthy,andvalued,whereassnappyandruderesponseshavetheoppositeeffect.Besides,thesocialrolesdefinedbytheconsumercontextmayprovideuniqueopportunitiesforparticularbehaviors,interactions,andexperiencesnotinherentinotherroles.Beingaclientorcustomermakesoneexpectrespect,courtesy,andattendancetoone’sneeds.Forsome,thismaybetheonlyroleintheirlifethatgivesthemalimitedsenseofbeinginchargeandhavingothersmeettheirdemands.Togiveanotherexample,complainingisaformofsocialinteractionthatmostlytakesplacewithintheconsumercontext.Asearchfor“complaintbehavior”inthePsycINFOdatabasefoundthat34outof50entrieswerestudiesfromtheconsumercontext.(Therestmostlyrelatedtohealthcare,whichmaytosomeextentalsobeviewedasconsumercontext.)Giventheimportanceoftheconsumercontexttosocialexperiencesandinteractions,itprovidesaprimeopportunityforstudyingthesesocialbehaviors.ConsumerBehaviorModelsinTourismAnalysisStudy

MuhannadM.AAbdallat,Ph.D.HeshamEl-SayedEl-Emam,Ph.D.DepartmentofTourismandHospitality,FacultyofTourismandArcheologyKingSaudUniversityABSTRACTThetheoriesofconsumerdecision-makingprocessassumethattheconsumer’spurchasedecisionprocessconsistsofstepsthroughwhichthebuyerpassesinpurchasingaproductorservice.However,thismightnotbethecase.Noteveryconsumerpassedthroughallthesestageswhenmakingadecisiontopurchaseandinfact,someofthestagescanbeskippeddependingonthetypeofpurchases.Thereasonsforthestudyofconsumer’shelpsfirmsandorganizationsimprovetheirmarketingstrategiesbyunderstandingissuessuchas:Thepsychologyofhowconsumersthink,feel,reason,andselectbetweendifferentalternatives(e.g.,brands,products);Thepsychologyofhowtheconsumerisinfluencedbyhisorherenvironment(e.g.,culture,family,signs,media);Thebehaviorofconsumerswhileshoppingormakingothermarketingdecisions;Limitationsinconsumerknowledgeorinformationprocessingabilitiesinfluencedecisionsandmarketingoutcome;Howconsumers’motivationanddecisionstrategiesdifferbetweenproducts,thatdifferintheirlevelofimportanceorinterestthattheyentailfortheconsumer;andHowmarketerscanadaptandimprovetheirmarketingcampaignsandmarketingstrategiestomoreeffectivelyreachtheconsumer.2.2ConsumerBehaviorThestudyofconsumerbehaviorfocusesonhowindividualsmakedecisionstospendtheiravailableresources(time,money,effort)onconsumption-relateditems(SchiffmanandKanuk,1997).Thefieldofconsumerbehaviorcoversalotofground.AccordingtoSolomon(1996),consumerbehaviorisastudyoftheprocessesinvolvedwhenindividualsorgroupsselect,purchase,use,ordisposeofproducts,services,ideas,orexperiencestosatisfyneedsanddesires.TheofficialdefinitionofconsumerbehaviorgivenbyBelch(1998)is?theprocessandactivitiespeopleengageinwhensearchingfor,selecting,purchasing,using,evaluating,anddisposingofproductsandservicessoastosatisfytheirneedsanddesires’.Behavioroccurseitherfortheindividual,orinthecontextofagroup,oranorganization.Consumerbehaviorinvolvestheuseanddisposalofproductsaswellasthestudyofhowtheyarepurchased.Productuseisoftenofgreatinteresttothemarketer,becausethismayinfluencehowaproductisbestpositionedorhowwecanencourageincreasedconsumption.Andreason(1965)proposedoneoftheearliestmodelsofconsumerbehavior.ThismodelisshowninFigure2.1.Themodelrecognizestheimportanceofinformationintheconsumerdecision-makingprocess.Italsoemphasizestheimportanceofconsumerattitudesalthoughitfailstoconsiderattitudesinrelationtorepeatpurchasebehavior.Asecondmodel,whichconcentratesonthebuyingdecisionforanewproduct,wasproposedbyNicosia(1976).ThismodelisshowninFigure2.2.Themodelconcentratesonthefirm'sattemptstocommunicatewiththeconsumer,andtheconsumers'predispositiontoactinacertainway.ThesetwofeaturesarereferredtoasFieldOne.Thesecondstageinvolvestheconsumerinasearchevaluationprocess,whichisinfluencedbyattitudes.ThisstageisreferredtoasFieldTwo.TheactualpurchaseprocessisreferredtoasFieldThree,andthepost-purchasefeedbackprocessisreferredtoasFieldFour.Thismodelwascriticizedbycommentatorsbecauseitwasnotempiricallytested(Zaltman,PinsonandAngelman,1973),andbecauseofthefactthatmanyofthevariableswerenotdefined(Lunn,1974).Perhaps,themostfrequentlyquotedofallconsumerbehaviormodelsistheHoward-Shethmodelofbuyerbehavior,whichwasdevelopedin1969.ThismodelisshowninFigure2.3.Themodelisimportantbecauseithighlightstheimportanceofinputstotheconsumerbuyingprocessandsuggestswaysinwhichtheconsumerorderstheseinputsbeforemakingafinaldecision.TheHoward-Shethmodelisnotperfectasitdoesnotexplainallbuyerbehavior.Itishowever,acomprehensivetheoryofbuyerbehaviorthathasbeendevelopedasaresultofempiricalresearch(Horton,1984).SchiffmanandKanuk(1997)mentionedthatmanyearlytheoriesconcerningconsumerbehaviorwerebasedoneconomictheory,onthenotionthatindividualsactrationallytomaximizetheirbenefits(satisfactions)inthepurchaseofgoodsandservices.Aconsumerisgenerallythoughtofasapersonwhoidentifiesaneedordesire,makesapurchase,andthendisposesoftheproductduringthethreestagesintheconsumptionprocessinFigure2.2(Solomon,1996)2.2.5Sheth-NewmanGrossModelofConsumptionValuesAccordingtothismodel,therearefiveconsumptionvaluesinfluencingconsumerchoicebehavior.Thesearefunctional,social,conditional,emotional,andepistemicvalues.Anyorallofthefiveconsumptionvaluesmayinfluencethedecision.Variousdisciplines(includingeconomics,sociology,severalbranchesofpsychology,marketingandconsumerbehavior)havecontributedtheoriesandresearchfindingsrelevanttothesevalues,(Shethetal.1991).EachconsumptionvalueinthetheoryisconsistentwithvariouscomponentsofmodelsadvancedbyMaslow(1970),Katona(1971),Katz(1960),andHanna(1980).Fiveconsumptionvaluesformthecoreofthemodel:Thefirstvalue:FunctionalvalueToShethetal.(1991)thefunctionalvalueofanalternativeisdefinedas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredfromanalternativeforfunctional,utilitarian,orphysicalperformance.Analternativeacquiresfunctionalvaluethroughthepossessionofsalientfunctional,utilitarian,orphysicalattributes.Functionalvalueismeasuredonaprofileofchoiceattributes."Traditionally,functionalvalueispresumedtobetheprimarydriverofconsumerchoice.ThisassumptionunderlieseconomicutilitytheoryadvancedbyMarshall(1890)andStigler(1950)andpopularlyexpressedintermsof"rationaleconomicman."Analternative’sfunctionalvaluemaybederivedfromitscharacteristicsorattributes,(Ferber,1973)suchasreliability,durability,andprice.Forexample,thedecisiontopurchaseaparticularautomobilemaybebasedonfueleconomyandmaintenancerecord.Byidentifyingthedominantfunctionofaproduct(i.e.,whatbenefitsitprovides),marketerscanemphasizethesebenefitsintheircommunicationandpackaging.Advertisementsrelevanttothefunctionpromptmorefavorablethoughtsaboutwhatisbeingmarketedandcanresultinaheightenedpreferencesforboththeadsandtheproduct,(Solomon1996;160).Katz(1960)developedthefunctionaltheoryofattitudes.Heidentifiesfourattitudesbasedonthefunctionalvalues:Utilitarianfunction.Theutilitarianfunctionisrelatedtothebasicprinciplesofrewardandpunishment.Wedevelopsomeofourattitudetowardproductssimplybasedonwhethertheseproductsprovidepleasureorpain.Value-expressivefunction.Attitudethatperformsavalue-expressivefunctionexpressestheconsumers’centralvaluesorself-concept.Apersonformsaproductattitudenotbecauseofitsobjectivebenefits,butbecauseofwhattheproductsaysabouthimorherasaperson.Ego-defensivefunction.Attitudeformedtoprotecttheperson,eitherfromexternalthreatsorinternalfeelings,performanego-defensivefunction.Exampleofthisfunctionisdeodorantcampaignsthatstressthedire,embarrassingconsequencesofbeingcaughtwithunderarmodorinpublic.Knowledgefunction.Someattitudeisformedasaresultofaneedfororder,structure,ormeaning.Thisneedisoftenpresentwhenapersonisinanambiguoussituationorisconfrontedwithanewproduct.Thesecondvalue:SocialvalueShethetal.(1991;161)definedsocialvalueofanalternativeas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredfromanalternativeassociationwithoneormorespecificsocialgroups.Analternativeacquiressocialvaluethroughassociationwithpositivelyornegativelystereotypeddemographic,socioeconomic,andcultural-ethnicgroups.Socialvalueismeasuredonaprofilechoiceimagery."Socialimageryreferstoallrelevantprimaryandsecondaryreferencegroupslikelytobesupportiveoftheproductconsumption.Consumersacquirepositiveornegativestereotypesbasedontheirassociationwithvarieddemographic(age,sex,religion),socioeconomic(income,occupation),cultural/ethnic(race,lifestyle),orpolitical,ideologicalsegmentsofsociety.Choicesinvolvinghighlyvisibleproducts(e.g.,clothing,jewelry)andgoodservicetobesharedwithothers(e.g.,gifts,productsusedinentertaining)areoftendrivenbysocialvalues.Forexample,aparticularmakeofautomobileisbeingchosenmoreforthesocialimageevokedthanforitsfunctionalperformance.Evenproductsgenerallythoughttobefunctionalorutilitarian,arefrequentlyselectedbasedontheirsocialvalues.Thethirdvalue:EmotionalvalueShethetal.(1991;161)definedemotionalvalueofanalternativeas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredfromanalternative’scapacitytoarousefeelingsoraffectivestates.Analternativeacquiresemotionalvaluewhenassociatedwithspecificfeelingsorwhenprecipitatingthosefeelings.Emotionalvaluesaremeasuredonaprofileoffeelingsassociatedwiththealternative."Consumptionemotionreferstothesetofemotionalresponseselicitedspecificallyduringproductusageorconsumptionexperience,asdescribedeitherbythedistinctivecategoriesofemotionalexperienceandexpression(e.g.,joy,anger,andfear)orbythestructuraldimensionsunderlyingemotionalcategoriessuchaspleasantness/unpleasantness,relaxation/action,orcalmness/excitement.Goodsandservicesarefrequentlyassociatedwithemotionalresponses(e.g.thefeararousedwhileviewinghorrormovie).Emotionalvalueisoftenassociatedwithaestheticalternatives(e.g.religion,causes).However,moretangibleandseeminglyutilitarianproductsalsohaveemotionalvalues.Forexample,somefoodsarousefeelingofcomfortthroughtheirassociationwithchildhoodexperiences,andconsumersaresometimessaidtohave"loveaffairs"withtheircars.Anumberofdifferentattemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythevariousemotionsthatpeopleexperience.Izard(1977)developsthetaxonomyofaffectiveexperienceapproachthatdescribesthebasicemotionthatpeoplefeel.Hemeasuresemotionsusingtenfundamentalcategories:interest,joy,surprise,sadness,anger,disgust,contempt,fear,shame,andguilt.Thisapproachhasbeenusedextensivelybyconsumerresearchers,forexample,WestbrookandOliver(1991).Thefourthvalue:EpistemicvalueShethetal.(1991;162)definedepistemicvalueas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredfromanalternativescapacitytoarousecuriosity,providenovelty,and/orsatisfyadesireforknowledge.Analternativeacquiresepistemicvaluebyitemsreferringtocuriosity,novelty,andknowledge."Epistemicissuesrefertoreasonsthatwouldjustifytheperceivedsatisfactionofcuriosity,knowledge,andexploratoryneedsofferedbytheproductasachangeofpace(somethingnew,different).Entirelynewexperiencecertainlyprovidesepistemicvalue.However,analternativethatprovidesasimplechangeofpacecanalsobeimbuedwithepistemicvalue.Thealternativemaybechosenbecausetheconsumerisboredorsatiatedwithhisorhercurrentbrand(asintryinganewtypeoffood),iscurious(asinvisitinganewshoppingcomplex),orhasadesiretolearn(asinexperiencinganotherculture).Theconceptofepistemicvalueshasbeeninfluencedbytheoryandbyseveralimportantareasofresearch.Exploratory,noveltyseeking,andvarietyseekingmotiveshavebeensuggestedtoactiveproductsearch,trial,andswitchingbehavior,(HowardandSheth1969).OneofthemostsignificantcontributorstothestudyoftheoptimalstimulationandarousalhasbeenBerlyne(1970),whocontendsthatindividualsaredriventomaintainanoptimalorintermediatelevelofstimulation.Finally,Hirschman(1980)hasadvancedinnovativeness,oraconsumedpropensitytoadoptnewproducts.TheFifthvalue:ConditionalvalueShethetal.(1991;162)definedtheconditionalvalueas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredbyanalternativeistheresultofthespecificsituationorsetofcircumstancesfacingthechoicemaker.Analternativeacquiresconditionalvalueinthepresenceofantecedentphysicalorsocialcontingenciesthatenhanceitsfunctionalorsocialvalue.Conditionalvalueismeasuredonaprofileofchoicecontingencies."Analternative’sutilitywilloftendependonthesituation.Forexample,someproductsonlyhaveseasonalvalue(e.g.,greetingcards),someareassociatedwithonceinalifeevents(e.g.,weddingdress),andsomeareusedonlyinemergencies(e.g.,hospitalservices).Severalareasofinquiryhavealsoinfluencedconditionalvalue.BasedontheconceptofstimulusdynamismadvancedbyHall(1963),Howard(1969)recognizedtheimportanceoflearningthattakesplaceasaresultofexperiencewithagivensituation.HowardandSheth(1969)thenextendedHoward’searlierworkbydefiningtheconstructinhibitorsasnoninternalizedforcesthatimpedebuyers’preferences.TheconceptofinhibitorswasmoreformallydevelopedbySheth(1974)inhismodelofattitude-behaviorrelationshipasanticipatedsituationsandunexpectedevents.Recognizingthatbehaviorcannotbeaccuratelypredictedbasedonattitudeorintentionalone,anumbero