社會(huì)認(rèn)知-Social-Cognition(中英文)

Chapter3SocialCognition（社會(huì)認(rèn)知）1.Themannerinwhichweinterpret,analyze,remember,anduseinformationaboutthesocialworld.（我們解釋、分析、記憶和使用社會(huì)世界信息的方式）2.Thestudyofhowpeopleforminferencesfromthesocialinformationintheenvironment.（研究人們?nèi)绾胃鶕?jù)環(huán)境中的社會(huì)信息形成推理）socialcognitionMaintermsconfirmatoryhypothesistesting（證實(shí)的假設(shè)檢驗(yàn)）;conjunctionerror（聯(lián)合錯(cuò)誤）;planningfallacy（計(jì)劃錯(cuò)誤）;counterfactualthinking（反事實(shí)思維）;rationalandintuitiveprocessing（理性和直覺加工）;magicalthinking（虛幻的思維）.Socialinference(社會(huì)推理);statisticalinformationandcasehistoryinformation(統(tǒng)計(jì)信息和個(gè)案歷史信息);illusorycorrelation(錯(cuò)覺相關(guān));framingeffect(參照效應(yīng));mood-congruentmemory(情緒相符的記憶);mood-dependentmemory(情緒依賴的記憶);mentalcontamination(心理污染);affectinfusionmodel(情感結(jié)合模型);thoughtsuppression(思想壓抑);attention,encoding,retrieval(注意、編碼和提取;self-fulfillingprophecies（自我實(shí)現(xiàn)的預(yù)言）;informationoverload（信息超載）;representativenessheuristic（代表性啟發(fā)）;availabilityheuristic（可得性啟發(fā)）;priming（啟動(dòng)）;simulationheuristic（模擬啟發(fā)）;anchoringandadjustmentheuristic（錨定和調(diào)整啟發(fā)）.I.Socialinference（社會(huì)推理）Anysocialinferenceiscomposedofseveralsteps:gatheringinformation,decidingwhatinformationtouse,andintegratingtheinformationintoajudgment.（任何社會(huì)推理都由幾個(gè)步驟構(gòu)成：收集信息、決定使用什么信息、整合信息形成判斷。）I.Socialinference（社會(huì)推理）1.Gatheringinformation:人們主觀上采取公正的、沒有偏差的方式收集用于社會(huì)推理的信息，但實(shí)際的信息收集過程易于受到多種偏差的影響。人們社會(huì)推理過程存在信息方面的偏差（biasesininformation）。主要的偏差來源有：1）Priorexpectationsinfluencethesocialperceivertocollectexpectation-consistentinformation.Expectation-inconsistentinformationwillbemorescrutinized.（先前的期望會(huì)影響社會(huì)知覺者收集與期望一致的信息，與預(yù)期不一致的信息會(huì)被更多地檢查。）Asfortheeffectofpriorexpectation,fourconditionsareproblematic（至于先前期望的影響，有四種情況是有問題的）.Thefirstisfaultyexpectations.Thesecondisthesocialperceiverfailstorecognizethebias.Thethirdisoverrulingconsiderationofinformationaltogether.Thefinalisthetendencytopersevereanimpressioneveninthefaceofcontradictoryinformation.I.Socialinference1.Gatheringinformation2）Smallsample（小樣本）:inferencesareproblematicwhentheyarebasedonverylittleinformation.3）Statisticalversuscasehistoryinformation:人們很容易根據(jù)豐富多彩的、令人激動(dòng)的個(gè)案信息而得出堅(jiān)定的結(jié)論。Statisticalinformationprovidesdataaboutalargenumberofindividuals,whereascasehistoryinformationdealswithonlyafewspecificindividuals.Whenpeopleareexposedtobothstatisticalinformationandacontradictorybutcolorfulcasehistory,thecasehistoryoftenhasmoreinfluenceontheirjudgment.在說服他人時(shí)，統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)與生動(dòng)的個(gè)案信息同樣重要。4）Impactofnegativeinformation（負(fù)面信息的影響）:Negativeinformationattractsmoreattentionthanpositiveinformation,consequentlyisweightedmoreheavilythanpositiveaspectswhenjudgmentsaremade.5）Retrievinginformationfromschemas:社會(huì)心理學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)研究介紹：

研究問題：Evenwhenpeoplearewarnedthatinformationmaybebiased,theysometimesfailtounderstandthefullimplicationsofthatbias.（即使當(dāng)人們被警告信息可能有偏差時(shí)，他們有時(shí)也沒有理解偏差的全部意義）一、實(shí)驗(yàn)處理（自變量的操縱）自變量1：告知獄警是典型的、獄警是不典型的、沒有告知自變量2：觀看兩種類型的獄警錄像，一種描述的是同情的、關(guān)愛的，一種是不人道的(inhumane)、猛男的(macho)、殘酷的二、觀察記錄的因變量：回答什么樣的人成為獄警三、實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果：看仁慈錄像的人比看不人道錄像的人對(duì)獄警的態(tài)度更正面；參加者的社會(huì)推理不受錄像中的獄警是否是典型的告知的影響。四、對(duì)這個(gè)研究的反思：I.Socialinference2.Makingjudgments（做判斷）Integratinginformationintojudgments:Thehumanjudgmentprocessdoesnotcloselyfollowtheprinciplesofarationalmodel.However,humandecisionmakershavegreatfaithintheirabilitiestomakedecisions.(人們的判斷過程并不嚴(yán)格遵循理性模型的原理。然而人類決策者非常相信他們做決策的能力）Socialjudgmentsareusuallybasedonincompleteinformation（社會(huì)判斷通常基于不完全的信息）.Judgmentsofcovariation（共變判斷）:Covariationmeanswhatgoeswithwhatinsociallife.

Framingeffects（表述效應(yīng)）:Termsusedtocalculatedecisionalternativesstronglyinfluencepeople’sjudgments.Motivationinfluencesthedirection,accuracyofjudgment（動(dòng)機(jī)影響判斷的方向和準(zhǔn)確性）.Inferenceisstronglyinfluencedbyemotion（情緒也影響推論過程）.JudgmentsofcovariationJudgmentsofcovariation:在整合社會(huì)信息、形成連貫的和一致的判斷時(shí)，人們希望弄明白哪些事情總是一起發(fā)生。(Whenputtinginformationtogethertoformcoherentimpressionsofpeopleandevents,peopleareconcernedaboutfiguringoutwhatgoeswithwhatinsociallife.)Inmakingjudgmentsaboutcovariation,peoplearepronetocertainerrors.Oneerrorisillusorycorrelation（錯(cuò)覺相關(guān)）.1.Illusorycorrelation:Peopletendtoseethingsasgoingtogetherwhentheythinktheyoughttogotogetherorwhentheysharefeaturesthatmakethemseemsimilar.Thus,whenarelationshipbetweentwovariablesisexpected,apersonislikelytooverestimatehowcloselyrelatedthosetwothingsareorimposearelationshipwhennoneexist.2.Factorsleadtoillusorycorrelation（導(dǎo)致錯(cuò)覺相關(guān)的因素）:Associativemeaning（意義聯(lián)想）：基于先前的期望，總是在一塊的事物是有聯(lián)系的。Paireddistinctiveness（配對(duì)的區(qū)別性）：共同擁有不一般的特征的事物是聯(lián)系在一起的。FramingeffectsFramingeffects（表述效應(yīng)）:Termsinwhichdecisionalternativesareframedoftenstronglyinfluencepeople’sjudgments.（各種決策方法表述的術(shù)語常常強(qiáng)烈地影響人們的判斷）Oneexampleispeople’srisk-aversetendency（一個(gè)事例是風(fēng)險(xiǎn)厭惡傾向）.People’srisk-aversetendency:Whetheradecisionispresentedintermsofthegainsitwillcreateorthelossesthatmightbeincurredinfluencespeople’sjudgment（一個(gè)決策是否用它將產(chǎn)生的收益來描述還是它將發(fā)生的損失來描述會(huì)影響人們的判斷）.Generallypeoplebecomeverycautiouswhenalternativesarephrasedintermsoftheirrisks,buttheyarefarmorelikelytotakechanceswhenalternativesareframedintermsofgains.（一般來說，當(dāng)方案根據(jù)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)來表述時(shí)，人們變得更加謹(jǐn)慎；用收益來表述時(shí)，人們非常可能去嘗試）Motivationandinference1.Howweprocessandputinformationtogethercanbeheavilyinfluencedbytheinferenceswewanttomake.2.Peopleoftengenerateandevaluateinformationinaself-servingmanner,constructingtheoriesthatareconsistentwiththeirbeliefs.3.Higherlevelsofmotivationincreasetheaccuracyofjudgmentswhenthosejudgmentswereeasytomakebutdecreasejudgmentalaccuracyinthecaseofdifficultjudgments.So,adesiretobeaccuratedoesnotnecessarilytranslateintoreality.4.Doesknowledgeabilityorexpertiseleadtoaccuratejudgment?Notcertainly.I.Socialinference3.Rapidprocessingandjudgment:automaticevaluationAutomaticevaluation-behaviorlink（自動(dòng)的評(píng)價(jià)-行動(dòng)聯(lián)系）:Evaluatingstimuliaspositiveornegativeisanautomatic,unawaresocialcognitionprocess.Suchevaluationguidessubsequentaction（這樣的評(píng)價(jià)會(huì)指導(dǎo)后續(xù)的行為）.Evaluativelytingedstimuli（評(píng)價(jià)意味的刺激）areeasilyandquicklynoticedandpromptthebehavioraltendenciesofapproachoravoidance.4.Judgingtheemotionalresponseandits’influence（判斷情緒反應(yīng)和情緒的影響）:affectiveforecasting（感情預(yù)測(cè)）Peoplecanaccuratelyjudgetheiremotionalresponsestoevents,butoftenoverpredicthowlongtheiremotionalreactionswilllast.I.Socialinference4.Socialinferencesuffersfrommanyerrorsandbiases（社會(huì)推理易于遭受各種錯(cuò)誤和偏差）.Whydopeoplenotobservetherationalmodel?Becauseitisoftenmoreimportantforpeopletobeefficientthantobe100percentaccurate.Consequently,peopledrawontheirpreexistingconceptionsofpeopleandsituationsanduseinferentialshortcutstomakesocialjudgmentsquicklyandefficiently（因?yàn)樾时?00%的準(zhǔn)確更重要，因此，人們利用已經(jīng)存在的人和情境的概念、使用推理捷徑來迅速作出社會(huì)判斷）.II.Mentalshortcuts（心理捷徑）Peopleusesomementalshortcutsbecauseofavoidinginformationoverloadononehand,andofensuringaccuracyofinferenceontheotherhand.Heuristicsaresomesimplerulesformakingcomplexdecisionsordrawinginferencesinarapidandseeminglyeffortlessmanner.Theyarethemostusefulmentalshortcuts.1.Representativenessheuristic(Judgingbyresemblance)（代表性啟發(fā)、根據(jù)相似性做判斷）:Astrategyformakingjudgmentsbasedontheextenttowhichcurrentstimulioreventsresembleotherstimuliorcategories.Errorofignoringbaserate（忽略基本比率的錯(cuò)誤）:Conjunctionerror:Combininginformationthatdoesnotbelongtogether,simplybecausetheinformationseemsasifitoughttogotogether.II.Mentalshortcuts（心理捷徑）2.Theavailabilityheuristic（可得性啟發(fā)）:Theeasieritistobringinformationtomind,thegreateritsimportanceorrelevancetoourjudgmentsordecisions.Informationthatiseasytorecall,orhaslargeamountinmemory,hasmoreinfluence.Primingincreasestheavailabilityofinformation.3.Thesimulationheuristic（模擬啟發(fā)）:Theeasewithwhichparticularendingscometomindisusedtojudgewhatislikelytohappen.Mentalsimulation（心理模擬）:Simulatinghoweventsmayhappenprovidesawindowonthefuturebyhelpingpeopleenvisionpossibilitiesanddevelopplansforbringingthosepossibilitiesabout.（模擬事件將怎樣發(fā)生為人們預(yù)想未來的可能性提供了窗口，并發(fā)展使可能性變?yōu)楝F(xiàn)實(shí)的計(jì)劃，預(yù)想過程比結(jié)果更有效）II.Mentalshortcuts（心理捷徑）4.Theanchoringandadjustmentheuristic（錨定和調(diào)整啟發(fā)）:Whenpeopleareattemptingtoformjudgmentsfromambiguousinformation,theywilloftenreduceambiguitybystartingwiththebeginningreferencepoint,oranchor,andthenadjustingit.Acommonanchorusedinsocialperceptionistheself（自我常常是社會(huì)知覺中的參照點(diǎn)，發(fā)展從他人角度看問題的能力）.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing

（圖式和圖式加工）1.Whatisaschema?Mentalframeworkscenteringaroundaspecificthemethathelpustoorganizesocialinformation.Schemascanbeaboutparticularpeople,socialroles,ortheself;attitudesaboutparticularobjects;stereotypesaboutgroups;orperceptionsofcommonevents.人的圖式(personschema)：一種表明特定的特質(zhì)和行為總是聯(lián)系在一起的心理結(jié)構(gòu)(mentalframeworks)，表現(xiàn)出這種心理結(jié)構(gòu)的人代表一種人的類型。角色圖式(roleschemas)：關(guān)于處于某種角色的人一般怎樣行動(dòng)、看起來象什么的信息的組織。事件圖式(eventschemas)：對(duì)于在特定情境所應(yīng)該發(fā)生的事件的期待。腳本是一種事件圖式。Ascript(腳本)isastandardsequenceofbehavioroveraperiodoftime,oraschemaaboutextremelycommonevents.Organizationofschemas（圖式的組織）:somehierarchicalorganization,alsolikeatangledweb.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing

（圖式和圖式加工）

2.SchematicprocessingAdvantagesofschematicprocessing（圖式加工的優(yōu)勢(shì)）1)Schemasaidrecall（圖式幫助回憶）.Poorly-andwell-developedschemasinfluencememorydifferently.（沒有充分形成的和充分形成的圖式對(duì)記憶的影響不同）2)Schemasspeedupprocessing.3)Schemasaidautomaticinference.什么情況下最容易發(fā)生自動(dòng)推論?4)Schemasaddinformation,andthenfillinmissinginformation.5)Schemasaidinterpretation.什么圖式有助于解釋?6)Schemasprovideexpectations.Schemascontainexpectationsforwhatshouldhappen.7)Schemascontainaffect（圖式包含感情）.Affectconsistsofthefeelingsaboutthecontentofaschema.Useofaparticularschemacanproduceanemotionalresponse,called“schema-drivenaffect”.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing

（圖式和圖式加工）2.SchematicprocessingLiabilitiesofschematicprocessing（圖式加工的麻煩）Thetendenciestobeoverlyacceptingofinformationthatfitsaschemaortheory,tofillingapsinthinkingbyaddingelementsthatdonotbelongbutareschema-consistent,toapplyschemasevenwhentheydonotfitverywell,andtobeunwillingchangeschemascanallbeliabilities.Wecaneasilybemisledbyoversimplifications.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing3)Factorsthatdeterminewhichschemasareused（決定哪些圖式被使用的因素）.Thenatureoftheinformationitselfsuggestsappropriateschemas（信息本身性質(zhì)會(huì)指明相應(yīng)的圖式）.Schemasfollowthenaturalcontours.Whetherapieceofinformationisdistinctiveorsalientintheenvironment.（信息在環(huán)境中是否突出、與其他信息是否區(qū)分）Primacy（首要信息）:Earlyinformationprovidesastructuretointerpretsubsequentinformation.Earlyusedschemahasmoreinfluencethanschemasappliedafterward.Primingeffect:Recentlyusedschemastendtobeusedinunrelatedsubsequentsituations.Theimportanceoftheinformationbeingprocessed（被加工信息的重要性）.Goalsofthesocialperceiveractivateparticularschemas.（社會(huì)知覺者激活特定圖式的目標(biāo)）Individualdifferences（個(gè)別差異）:Idiosyncraticuseandneedsforstructureleadpeopletousedifferentschemas.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing4)Whenpeoplearemorelikelytouseschemas（人們?cè)谑裁辞闆r下更加可能使用圖式）?Outcomedependency（判斷結(jié)果對(duì)自己有影響）.Outcomedependencyleadtolessfrequentuseofschemasandmoreattentiontotheinformation.Accountability（說明判斷的依據(jù)）.Accountabilityand/ortheneedtobeaccurateleadspeopletopaymoreattentiontodataandlessattentiontotheirschemas.Timepressure（時(shí)間壓力）.Undertimepressure,peopletendtousetheirschemasmore.Availableinformationfitaschemawell（信息很好地符合一個(gè)圖式）,andtheperceiverisunmotivatedtoexaminethedatathoroughly.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing3.Schemasinaction1)Confirmatoryhypothesistesting（支持性假設(shè)檢驗(yàn)）.Peoplebehavetowardothersinwaystendtoconfirmthebeliefstheyholdaboutothers.Perceiversemployinteractionstrategiestoelicitinformationfromothersthatpreferentiallysupportstheirschemas.Morethanonehypothesisinmindcounterbalancethenegativeeffectofconfirmatoryhypothesistesting.2)Self-fulfillingprophecies（自我實(shí)現(xiàn)的預(yù)言）.Aperceiver’sfalseexpectationsaboutanotherpersonleadthatpersontoadoptthoseexpectedattributesandbehaviors.Theprocessofthedevelopmentofthisphenomena.Conditionsunderwhichself-fulfillingpropheciesbecometrue.IV.Potentialpitfallsinsocialinference

（社會(huì)推理中的潛在陷阱）1.Rationalversusintuitiveprocessing:Cognitive-experientialself-theory:Oureffortstounderstandtheworldaroundusproceedintwoways.Oneisdeliberate,rationalthinking,whichfollowsbasicrulesoflogic.Theotherisamoreintuitivesystemthatoperatesinaautomatic,holisticmanner–akindofdo-it-by-hunches-or-intuitionkindofapproach.Rationalthinkingisusedinsituationsinvolvinganalyticalthought.Intuitivethinkingisusedinmanyothersituations,includingmostsocialones.2.Dealingwithinconsistentinformation:payingmoreattentiontoit,ormaydiscountitordownplayit.IV.Potentialpitfallsinsocialinference3.Planningfallacy(optimisticbias):Atendencytobeoverlyoptimisticabouthowlongagiventaskwilltake.Weoftenthinkwecandomore,soonerthanwereallycan.4.Thepotentialcostsofthinkingtoomuch:5.Counterfactualthinking:Thetendencytoimagineoutcomesinasituationotherthanthosethatactuallyoccurred–tothinkabout“whatmighthavebeen.”IV.Potentialpitfallsinsocialinference6.Magicalthinking:Suchthinkingmakesassumptionsthatdon’tholduptorationalscrutinybutwhicharecompellingnonetheless.1)lawofcontagion:Whentwoobjectstouch,theypasspropertiestooneanother,andtheeffectsofcontactmaylastwellbeyondtheendofthecontact;2)lawofsimilarity:Thingsthatresembleoneanothersharebasicproperties;3)influencingthephysicalworldthroughthoughts.7.Thoughtsuppression:Effortstoavoidthinkingcertainthoughtssometimesbackfire.Thoughtsuppressioninvolvestwocomponents,1)automaticmonitoringprocess,2)operatingprocess.V.Moodandaffectinfluence