土木工程專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)課文原文與對(duì)照翻譯

..CivilEngineeringCivilengineering,theoldestoftheengineeringspecialties,istheplanning,design,construction,andmanagementofthebuiltenvironment.Thisenvironmentincludesallstructuresbuiltaccordingtoscientificprinciples,fromirrigationanddrainagesystemstorocket-launchingfacilities.土木工程學(xué)作為最老的工程技術(shù)學(xué)科,是指規(guī)劃,設(shè)計(jì),施工及對(duì)建筑環(huán)境的管理。此處的環(huán)境包括建筑符合科學(xué)規(guī)范的所有結(jié)構(gòu),從灌溉和排水系統(tǒng)到火箭發(fā)射設(shè)施。Civilengineersbuildroads,bridges,tunnels,dams,harbors,powerplants,waterandsewagesystems,hospitals,schools,masstransit,andotherpublicfacilitiesessentialtomodernsocietyandlargepopulationconcentrations.Theyalsobuildprivatelyownedfacilitiessuchasairports,railroads,pipelines,skyscrapers,andotherlargestructuresdesignedforindustrial,commercial,orresidentialuse.Inaddition,civilengineersplan,design,andbuildcompletecitiesandtowns,andmorerecentlyhavebeenplanninganddesigningspaceplatformstohouseself-containedcommunities.土木工程師建造道路,橋梁,管道,大壩,海港,發(fā)電廠,給排水系統(tǒng),醫(yī)院,學(xué)校,公共交通和其他現(xiàn)代社會(huì)和大量人口集中地區(qū)的基礎(chǔ)公共設(shè)施。他們也建造私有設(shè)施,比如飛機(jī)場(chǎng),鐵路,管線(xiàn),摩天大樓,以及其他設(shè)計(jì)用作工業(yè),商業(yè)和住宅途徑的大型結(jié)構(gòu)。此外,土木工程師還規(guī)劃設(shè)計(jì)及建造完整的城市和鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn),并且最近一直在規(guī)劃設(shè)計(jì)容納設(shè)施齊全的社區(qū)的空間平臺(tái)。ThewordcivilderivesfromtheLatinforcitizen.In1782,EnglishmanJohnSmeatonusedthetermtodifferentiatehisnonmilitaryengineeringworkfromthatofthemilitaryengineerswhopredominatedatthetime.Sincethen,thetermcivilengineeringhasoftenbeenusedtorefertoengineerswhobuildpublicfacilities,althoughthefieldismuchbroader土木一詞來(lái)源于拉丁文詞"公民"。在1782年,英國(guó)人JohnSmeaton為了把他的非軍事工程工作區(qū)別于當(dāng)時(shí)占優(yōu)勢(shì)地位的軍事工程師的工作而采用的名詞。自從那時(shí)起,土木工程學(xué)被用于提及從事公共設(shè)施建設(shè)的工程師,盡管其包含的領(lǐng)域更為廣闊。Scope.Becauseitissobroad,civilengineeringissubdividedintoanumberoftechnicalspecialties.Dependingonthetypeofproject,theskillsofmanykindsofcivilengineerspecialistsmaybeneeded.Whenaprojectbegins,thesiteissurveyedandmappedbycivilengineerswholocateutilityplacement—water,sewer,andpowerlines.Geotechnicalspecialistsperformsoilexperimentstodetermineiftheearthcanbeartheweightoftheproject.Environmentalspecialistsstudytheproject’simpactonthelocalarea:thepotentialforairandgroundwaterpollution,theproject’simpactonlocalanimalandplantlife,andhowtheprojectcanbedesignedtomeetgovernmentrequirementsaimedatprotectingtheenvironment.Transportationspecialistsdeterminewhatkindoffacilitiesareneededtoeasetheburdenonlocalroadsandothertransportationnetworksthatwillresultfromthecompletedproject.Meanwhile,structuralspecialistsusepreliminarydatatomakedetaileddesigns,plans,andspecificationsfortheproject.Supervisingandcoordinatingtheworkofthesecivilengineerspecialists,frombeginningtoendoftheproject,aretheconstructionmanagementspecialists.Basedoninformationsuppliesbytheotherspecialists,constructionmanagementcivilengineersestimatequantitiesandcostsofmaterialsandlabor,scheduleallwork,ordermaterialsandequipmentforthejob,hirecontractorsandsubcontractors,andperformothersupervisoryworktoensuretheprojectiscompletedontimeandasspecified.領(lǐng)域。因?yàn)榘秶珡V,土木工程學(xué)又被細(xì)分為大量的技術(shù)專(zhuān)業(yè)。不同類(lèi)型的工程需要多種不同土木工程專(zhuān)業(yè)技術(shù)。一個(gè)項(xiàng)目開(kāi)始的時(shí)候,土木工程師要對(duì)場(chǎng)地進(jìn)行測(cè)繪,定位有用的布置,如地下水水位,下水道,和電力線(xiàn)。巖土工程專(zhuān)家則進(jìn)行土力學(xué)試驗(yàn)以確定土壤能否承受工程荷載。環(huán)境工程專(zhuān)家研究工程對(duì)當(dāng)?shù)氐挠绊?包括對(duì)空氣和地下水的可能污染,對(duì)當(dāng)?shù)貏?dòng)植物生活的影響,以及如何讓工程設(shè)計(jì)滿(mǎn)足政府針對(duì)環(huán)境保護(hù)的需要。交通工程專(zhuān)家確定必需的不同種類(lèi)設(shè)施以減輕由整個(gè)工程造成的對(duì)當(dāng)?shù)毓泛推渌煌ňW(wǎng)絡(luò)的負(fù)擔(dān)。同時(shí),結(jié)構(gòu)工程專(zhuān)家利用初步數(shù)據(jù)對(duì)工程作詳細(xì)規(guī)劃,設(shè)計(jì)和說(shuō)明。從項(xiàng)目開(kāi)始到結(jié)束,對(duì)這些土木工程專(zhuān)家的工作進(jìn)行監(jiān)督和調(diào)配的則是施工管理專(zhuān)家。根據(jù)其他專(zhuān)家所提供的信息,施工管理專(zhuān)家計(jì)算材料和人工的數(shù)量和花費(fèi),所有工作的進(jìn)度表,訂購(gòu)工作所需要的材料和設(shè)備,雇傭承包商和分包商,還要做些額外的監(jiān)督工作以確保工程能按時(shí)按質(zhì)完成。Throughoutanygivenproject,civilengineersmakeextensiveuseofcomputers.Computersareusedtodesigntheproject’svariouselements<computer-aideddesign,orCAD>andtomanageit.Computersarenecessityforthemoderncivilengineerbecausetheypermittheengineertoefficientlyhandlethelargequantitiesofdataneededindeterminingthebestwaytoconstructaproject.貫穿任何給定項(xiàng)目,土木工程師都需要大量使用計(jì)算機(jī)。計(jì)算機(jī)用于設(shè)計(jì)工程中使用的多數(shù)元件〔即計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì),或者CAD并對(duì)其進(jìn)行管理。計(jì)算機(jī)成為了現(xiàn)代土木工程師的必備品,因?yàn)樗沟霉こ處熌苡行У卣瓶厮璧拇罅繑?shù)據(jù)從而確定建造一項(xiàng)工程的最佳方法。Structuralengineering.Inthisspecialty,civilengineersplananddesignstructuresofalltypes,includingbridge,dams,powerplants,supportsforequipment,specialstructuresforoffshoreprojects,theUnitedStatesspaceprogram,transmissiontowers,giantastronomicalandradiotelescopes,andmanyotherkindsofprojects.Usingcomputers,structuralengineersdeterminetheforcesastructuremustresist:itsownweight,windandhurricaneforces,temperaturechangesthatexpandorcontractconstructionmaterials,andearthquakes.Theyalsodeterminethecombinationofappropriatematerials:steel,concrete,plastic,asphalt,brick,aluminum,orotherconstructionmaterials.結(jié)構(gòu)工程學(xué)。在這一專(zhuān)業(yè)領(lǐng)域,土木工程師規(guī)劃設(shè)計(jì)各種類(lèi)型的結(jié)構(gòu),包括橋梁,大壩,發(fā)電廠,設(shè)備支撐,海面上的特殊結(jié)構(gòu),美國(guó)太空計(jì)劃,發(fā)射塔,龐大的天文和無(wú)線(xiàn)電望遠(yuǎn)鏡,以及許多其他種類(lèi)的項(xiàng)目。結(jié)構(gòu)工程師應(yīng)用計(jì)算機(jī)確定一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)必須承受的力：自重,風(fēng)荷載和颶風(fēng)荷載,建筑材料溫度變化引起的脹縮,以及地震荷載。他們也需確定不同種材料如鋼筋,混凝土,塑料,石頭,瀝青,磚,鋁或其他建筑材料等的復(fù)合作用。Waterresourcesengineering.Civilengineersinthisspecialtydealwithallaspectsofthephysicalcontrolofwater.Theirprojectshelppreventfloods,supplywaterforcitiesandforirrigation,manageandcontrolriversandwaterrunoff,andmaintainbeachesandotherwaterfrontfacilities.Inaddition,theydesignandmaintainharbors,canals,andlocks,buildhugehydroelectricdamsandsmallerdamsandwaterimpoundmentsofallkinds,helpdesignoffshorestructures,anddeterminethelocationofstructuresaffectingnavigation.水利工程學(xué)。土木工程師在這一領(lǐng)域主要處理水的物理控制方面的種種問(wèn)題。他們的項(xiàng)目用于幫助預(yù)防洪水災(zāi)害,提供城市用水和灌溉用水,管理控制河流和水流物,維護(hù)河灘及其他濱水設(shè)施。此外,他們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)和維護(hù)海港,運(yùn)河與水閘,建造大型水利大壩與小型壩,以及各種類(lèi)型的圍堰,幫助設(shè)計(jì)海上結(jié)構(gòu)并且確定結(jié)構(gòu)的位置對(duì)航行影響。Geotechnicalengineering.Civilengineerswhospecializeinthisfieldanalyzethepropertiesofsoilsandrocksthatsupportstructuresandaffectstructuralbehavior.Theyevaluateandworktominimizethepotentialsettlementofbuildingsandotherstructuresthatstemsfromthepressureoftheirweightontheearth.Theseengineersalsoevaluateanddeterminehowtostrengthenthestabilityofslopesandfillsandhowtoprotectstructuresagainstearthquakesandtheeffectsofgroundwater.巖土工程學(xué)。專(zhuān)業(yè)于這個(gè)領(lǐng)域的土木工程師對(duì)支撐結(jié)構(gòu)并影響結(jié)構(gòu)行為的土壤和巖石的特性進(jìn)行分析。他們計(jì)算建筑和其他結(jié)構(gòu)由于自重壓力可能引起的沉降,并采取措施使之減少到最小。他們也需計(jì)算并確定如何加強(qiáng)斜坡和填充物的穩(wěn)定性以及如何保護(hù)結(jié)構(gòu)免受地震和地下水的影響。Environmentalengineering.Inthisbranchofengineering,civilengineersdesign,buildandsupervisesystemstoprovidesafedrinkingwaterandtopreventandcontrolpollutionofwatersupplies,bothonthesurfaceandunderground.Theyalsodesign,build,andsuperviseprojectstocontroloreliminatepollutionofthelandandair.Theseengineersbuildwaterandwastewatertreatmentplants,anddesignairscrubbersandotherdevicestominimizeoreliminateairpollutioncausedbyindustrialprocesses,incineration,orothersmoke-producingactivities.Theyalsoworktocontroltoxicandhazardouswastesthroughtheconstructionofspecialdumpsitesortheneutralizingoftoxicandhazardoussubstances.Inaddition,theengineersdesignandmanagesanitarylandfillstopreventpollutionofsurroundingland.環(huán)境工程學(xué)。在這一工程學(xué)分支中,土木工程師設(shè)計(jì),建造并監(jiān)視系統(tǒng)以提供安全的飲用水,同時(shí)預(yù)防和控制地表和地下水資源供給的污染。他們也設(shè)計(jì),建造并監(jiān)視工程以控制甚至消除對(duì)土地和空氣的污染。他們建造供水和廢水處理廠,設(shè)計(jì)空氣凈化器和其他設(shè)備以最小化甚至消除由工業(yè)加工、焚化及其他產(chǎn)煙生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)引起的空氣污染。他們也采用建造特殊傾倒地點(diǎn)或使用有毒有害物中和劑的措施來(lái)控制有毒有害廢棄物。此外,工程師還對(duì)垃圾掩埋進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)和管理以預(yù)防其對(duì)周?chē)h(huán)境造成污染。Transportationengineering.Civilengineersworkinginthisspecialtybuildfacilitiestoensuresafeandefficientmovementofbothpeopleandgoods.Theyspecializeindesigningandmaintainingalltypesoftransportationfacilities,highwaysandstreets,masstransitsystems,railroadsandairfields,portsandharbors.Transportationengineersapplytechnologicalknowledgeaswellasconsiderationoftheeconomic,political,andsocialfactorsindesigningeachproject.Theyworkcloselywithurbanplanners,sincethequalityofthecommunityisdirectlyrelatedtothequalityofthetransportationsystem.交通工程學(xué)。從事這一專(zhuān)業(yè)領(lǐng)域的土木工程師建造可以確保人和貨物安全高效運(yùn)行的設(shè)施。他們專(zhuān)門(mén)研究各種類(lèi)型運(yùn)輸設(shè)施的設(shè)計(jì)和維護(hù),如公路和街道,公共交通系統(tǒng),鐵路和飛機(jī)場(chǎng),港口和海港。交通工程師應(yīng)用技術(shù)知識(shí)及考慮經(jīng)濟(jì),政治和社會(huì)因素來(lái)設(shè)計(jì)每一個(gè)項(xiàng)目。他們的工作和城市規(guī)劃者十分相似,因?yàn)榻煌ㄟ\(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)的質(zhì)量直接關(guān)系到社區(qū)的質(zhì)量。Pipelineengineering.Inthisbranchofcivilengineering,engineersbuildpipelinesandrelatedfacilitieswhichtransportliquids,gases,orsolidsrangingfromcoalslurries<mixedcoalandwater>andsemiliquidwastes,towater,oil,andvarioustypesofhighlycombustibleandnoncombustiblegases.Theengineersdeterminepipelinedesign,theeconomicandenvironmentalimpactofaprojectonregionsitmusttraverse,thetypeofmaterialstobeused-steel,concrete,plastic,orcombinationsofvariousmaterials-installationtechniques,methodsfortestingpipelinestrength,andcontrolsformaintainingproperpressureandrateofflowofmaterialsbeingtransported.Whenhazardousmaterialsarebeingcarried,safetyisamajorconsiderationaswell.渠道工程學(xué)。在土木工程學(xué)的這一支鏈中,土木工程師建造渠道和運(yùn)送從煤泥漿<混合的煤和水>和半流體廢污,到水、石油和多種類(lèi)型的高度可燃和不可燃的氣體中分離出來(lái)的液體,氣體和固體的相關(guān)設(shè)備。工程師決定渠道的設(shè)計(jì),項(xiàng)目所處地區(qū)必須考慮到的經(jīng)濟(jì)性和環(huán)境因素,以及所使用材料的類(lèi)型——鋼、混凝土、塑料、或多種材料的復(fù)合——的安裝技術(shù),測(cè)試渠道強(qiáng)度的方法,和控制所運(yùn)送流體材料保持適當(dāng)?shù)膲毫土魉佟．?dāng)流體中攜帶危險(xiǎn)材料時(shí),安全性因素也需要被考慮。Constructionengineering.Civilengineersinthisfieldoverseetheconstructionofaprojectfrombeginningtoend.Sometimescalledprojectengineers,theyapplybothtechnicalandmanagerialskills,includingknowledgeofconstructionmethods,planning,organizing,financing,andoperatingconstructionprojects.Theycoordinatetheactivitiesofvirtuallyeveryoneengagedinthework:thesurveyors;workerswholayoutandconstructthetemporaryroadsandramps,excavateforthefoundation,buildtheformsandpourtheconcrete;andworkerswhobuildthesteelframework.Theseengineersalsomakeregularprogressreportstotheownersofthestructure.建筑工程學(xué)。土木工程師在這個(gè)領(lǐng)域中從開(kāi)始到結(jié)束監(jiān)督項(xiàng)目的建筑。他們,有時(shí)被稱(chēng)為項(xiàng)目工程師,應(yīng)用技術(shù)和管理技能,包括建筑工藝,規(guī)劃,組織,財(cái)務(wù),和操作項(xiàng)目建設(shè)的知識(shí)。事實(shí)上,他們協(xié)調(diào)工程中每個(gè)人的活動(dòng)：測(cè)量員,布置和建造臨時(shí)道路和斜坡,開(kāi)挖基礎(chǔ),支模板和澆注混凝土的工人,以及鋼筋工人。這些工程師也向結(jié)構(gòu)的業(yè)主提供進(jìn)度計(jì)劃報(bào)告。Communityandurbanplanning.Thoseengagedinthisareaofcivilengineeringmayplananddevelopcommunitywithinacity,orentirecities.Suchplanninginvolvesfarmorethanengineeringconsideration;environmental,social,andeconomicfactorsintheuseanddevelopmentoflandandnaturalresourcesarealsokeyelements.Thesecivilengineerscoordinateplanningofpublicworksalongwithprivatedevelopment.Theyevaluatethekindsoffacilitiesneeded,includingstreetsandhighways,publictransportationsystems,airports,portfacilities,water-supplyandwastewater-disposalsystems,publicbuildings,parks,andrecreationalandotherfacilitiestoensuresocialandeconomicaswellasenvironmentalwell-being.社區(qū)和城市規(guī)劃。從事土木工程這一方面的工程師可能規(guī)劃和發(fā)展一個(gè)城市中的社區(qū),或整個(gè)城市。此規(guī)劃中所包括的遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不僅僅為工程因素,土地的開(kāi)發(fā)使用和自然資源環(huán)境的,社會(huì)的和經(jīng)濟(jì)的因素也是主要的成分。這些土木工程師對(duì)公共建設(shè)工程的規(guī)劃和私人建筑的發(fā)展進(jìn)行協(xié)調(diào)。他們?cè)u(píng)估所需的設(shè)施,包括街道,公路,公共運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng),機(jī)場(chǎng),港口,給排水和污水處理系統(tǒng),公共建筑,公園,和娛樂(lè)及其他設(shè)施以保證社會(huì),經(jīng)濟(jì)和環(huán)境地協(xié)調(diào)發(fā)展。Photogrametry,surveying,andmapping.ThecivilengineersinthisspecialtypreciselymeasuretheEarth’ssurfacetoobtainreliableinformationforlocatinganddesigningengineeringprojects.Thispracticeofteninvolveshigh-technologymethodssuchassatelliteandaerialsurveying,andcomputer-processingofphotographicimagery.Radiosignalfromsatellites,scansbylaserandsonicbeams,areconvertedtomapstoprovidefarmoreaccuratemeasurementsforboringtunnels,buildinghighwaysanddams,plottingfloodcontrolandirrigationproject,locatingsubsurfacegeologicformationsthatmayaffectaconstructionproject,andahostofotherbuildinguses.攝影測(cè)量,測(cè)量學(xué)和地圖繪制。在這一專(zhuān)業(yè)領(lǐng)域的土木工程師精確測(cè)量地球表面以獲得可靠的信息來(lái)定位和設(shè)計(jì)工程項(xiàng)目。這一方面包括高工藝學(xué)方法,如衛(wèi)星成相,航拍,和計(jì)算機(jī)成相。來(lái)自人造衛(wèi)星的無(wú)線(xiàn)電信號(hào),通過(guò)激光和音波柱掃描被轉(zhuǎn)換為地圖,為隧道鉆孔,建造高速公路和大壩,繪制洪水控制和灌溉方案,定位可能影響建筑項(xiàng)目的地下巖石構(gòu)成,以及許多其他建筑用途提供更精準(zhǔn)的測(cè)量。Otherspecialties.Twoadditionalcivilengineeringspecialtiesthatarenotentirelywithinthescopeofcivilengineeringbutareessentialtothedisciplineareengineeringmanagementandengineeringteaching.其他的專(zhuān)門(mén)項(xiàng)目。還有兩個(gè)并不完全在土木工程范圍里面但對(duì)訓(xùn)練相當(dāng)重要的附加的專(zhuān)門(mén)項(xiàng)目是工程管理和工程教學(xué)。Engin