《2021 年亞太貿(mào)易便利化報(bào)告》：跨境貿(mào)易數(shù)字化具有巨大潛力-87正式版

Asia-Paci?cTradeFacilitationReport????SupplyChainsofCriticalGoodsamidtheCOVID-??Pandemic—Disruptions,Recovery,andResilienceSupplychaindisruptionscausedbythecoronavirusdisease(COVID-??)pandemichaveunderscoredtheneedfordigitalandpaperlesstradeprocedurestofacilitatetrade.ThisreportreviewstheimpactoftradefacilitationinitiativesontradecostsinAsiaandthePaci?csincethepandemicbegan.Aspecialchapterexaminesthepandemic’simpactonthesupplychainsofcriticalgoodssuchasvaccines,personalprotectiveequipment,andfood,andprovidespolicysuggestionstowardenhancingsupplychainresiliencealongwithtradefacilitation.ThisisthethirdbiennialprogressreportontradefacilitationimplementationinAsiaandthePaci?cjointlypreparedbytheAsianDevelopmentBankandtheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePaci?c.AbouttheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePaci?cTheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePaci?c(ESCAP)isthemostinclusiveintergovernmentalplatformintheAsiaandPaci?cregion.Thecommissionpromotescooperationamongits??memberstatesand?associatemembersinpursuitofsolutionstosustainabledevelopmentchallenges.ESCAPisoneofthe?veregionalcommissionsoftheUnitedNations.TheESCAPsecretariatsupportsinclusive,resilientandsustainabledevelopmentintheregionbygeneratingaction-orientedknowledge,andbyprovidingtechnicalassistanceandcapacity-buildingservicesinsupportofnationaldevelopmentobjectives,regionalagreements,andtheimplementationofthe????AgendaforSustainableDevelopment.AbouttheAsianDevelopmentBankASIA?PACIFICTRADEFACILITATIONREPORT????ADBiscommittedtoachievingaprosperous,inclusive,resilient,andsustainableAsiaandthePaci?c,whilesustainingitse?ortstoeradicateextremepoverty.Establishedin????,itisownedby??members—??fromtheregion.Itsmaininstrumentsforhelpingitsdevelopingmembercountriesarepolicydialogue,loans,equityinvestments,guarantees,grants,andtechnicalassistance.SUPPLYCHAINSOFCRITICALGOODSAMIDTHECOVID???PANDEMICDISRUPTIONS,RECOVERY,ANDRESILIENCEOCTOBER????ASIA-PACIFICTRADEFACILITATIONREPORT2021SUPPLYCHAINSOFCRITICALGOODSAMIDTHECOVID-19PANDEMICDISRUPTIONS,RECOVERY,ANDRESILIENCEOCTOBER2021?CreativeCommonsAttribution3.0IGOlicense(CCBY3.0IGO)?2021AsianDevelopmentBank6ADBAvenue,MandaluyongCity,1550MetroManila,PhilippinesTel+63286324444;Fax+63286362444UNESCAPhasgrantedpermissiontouseUNESCAP-copyrightedmaterialforthisWork,andtomakethematerialavailableunderanopenaccesslicense.Somerightsreserved.Publishedin2021.ISBN978-92-9269-062-5(print);978-92-9269-063-2(electronic);978-92-9269-064-9(ebook)PublicationStockNo.SPR210365-2DOI:/10.22617/SPR210365-2Theviewsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyre?ecttheviewsandpoliciesof?theAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)oritsBoardofGovernorsorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.ADBdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyofthedataincludedinthispublicationandacceptsnoresponsibilityforanyconsequenceoftheiruse.Thementionofspeci?ccompaniesorproductsofmanufacturersdoesnotimplythattheyareendorsedorrecommendedbyADBinpreferencetoothersofasimilarnaturethatarenotmentioned.Bymakinganydesignationoforreferencetoaparticularterritoryorgeographicarea,orbyusingtheterm“country”in?thisdocument,ADBdoesnotintendtomakeanyjudgmentsastothelegalorotherstatusofanyterritoryorarea.ThisworkisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0IGOlicense(CCBY3.0IGO)/licenses/by/3.0/igo/.Byusingthecontentofthispublication,youagreetobeboundby?the?termsofthislicense.Forattribution,translations,adaptations,andpermissions,pleasereadtheprovisionsand?termsofuseat/terms-use#openaccess.ThisCClicensedoesnotapplytonon-ADBcopyrightmaterialsinthispublication.Ifthematerialisattributedto?anothersource,pleasecontactthecopyrightownerorpublisherofthatsourceforpermissiontoreproduceit.ADBcannotbeheldliableforanyclaimsthatariseasaresultofyouruseofthematerial.Pleasecontactpubsmarketing@ifyouhavequestionsorcommentswithrespecttocontent,orifyouwishto?obtaincopyrightpermissionforyourintendedusethatdoesnotfallwithintheseterms,orforpermissiontousethe?ADBlogo.CorrigendatoADBpublicationsmaybefoundat/publications/corrigenda.Note:Inthispublication,“$”referstoUnitedStatesdollars.ADBrecognizes“China”asthePeople'sRepublicofChina.CoverdesignbyJanCarloDelaCruzAllphotosweretakenfromADBPhotoLibrary.CONTENTSTABLES,FIGURES,ANDBOXESFOREWORDbyArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbanaFOREWORDbyBambangSusantono,ADBACKNOWLEDGMENTSvviiiixxABBREVIATIONSxiHIGHLIGHTSxiiDIGITALANDSUSTAINABLETRADEFACILITATION11TradeCostsandTradeFacilitationinAsiaandthePaci?c:StateofPlay1.1?|?TradeCosts:SubregionalTrends221.2?|?ImplementationofDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitationMeasures1.2.1?StatusofImplementation331.2.2?ProgressinImplementationfrom2019to20211323ImpactofTradeFacilitationonTradeCosts2.1?|?ModelandData161618192.2?|?EmpiricalResults2.3?|?ACounterfactualAnalysisConclusionandWayForward222526SUPPLYCHAINSOFCRITICALGOODSAMIDTHECOVID-19PANDEMIC—DISRUPTIONS,RECOVERY,ANDRESILIENCE12IntroductionSupplyChainDisruptions2828342.1?|?CausesofDisruptions2.2?|?CausesandResponsesbeforeandafterCOVID-19iiiiv?Contents34SupplyChainResilience373939403.1?|?Concept3.2?|?EmergingVulnerabilities3.3?|?ExistingCapabilitiesCaseStudiesonCriticalGoods—SupplyChainIssuesEmergedduringthePandemic4.1?|?VaccinesandPersonalProtectiveEquipment4.1.1?COVID-19Vaccines42424246494.1.2?PersonalProtectiveEquipment4.2?|?FoodSupplyChain5PolicyImplications5959606162625.1?|?GlobalandRegionalCooperation5.2?|?OpenTradeandTradeFacilitation5.3?|?DigitalTechnology5.4?|?AssistanceTargetedtoVulnerableEconomiesandGroups5.5?|?RoleofMultilateralInstitutionsTABLES,FIGURES,ANDBOXESDIGITALANDSUSTAINABLETRADEFACILITATIONTABLES12Intra-andExtra-RegionalComprehensiveTradeCosts,2014–201924GroupingofTradeFacilitationMeasuresandCorrespondencewithTradeFacilitationAgreementArticles3456MostandLeastImplementedMeasuresinAsiaandthePaci?cDataSource,De?nition,Treatment,Source,andExpectedSignTradeCostModelResults12171820ChangesinInternationalTradeCostsofAsiaandthePaci?casaResultofWorldTradeOrganizationTradeFacilitationAgreementImplementation7ChangesinTradeCostofAsiaandthePaci?cfromBetterPortConnectivityandTradeFinance21FIGURES1234567OverallImplementationofTradeFacilitationMeasuresin46AsiaandPaci?cCountries78TradeFacilitationinAsiaandPaci?cSubregionsandCountrieswithSpecialNeedsImplementationofGroupsofTradeFacilitationMeasures,AsiaandPaci?cAverageImplementationofDigitalandSustainableDimensionsofTradeFacilitationTradeFacilitationImplementationbySubregion,2019and20211010141523ImplementationofGroupsofTradeFacilitationMeasuresinAsiaandthePaci?c,2019and2021MovingUptheTradeFacilitationLaddertowardSeamlessInternationalSupplyChainsBOXFrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePaci?c:AnUpdate6vvi?TABLES,FIGURES,ANDBOXESSUPPLYCHAINSOFCRITICALGOODSAMIDTHECOVID-19PANDEMIC—DISRUPTIONS,RECOVERY,ANDRESILIENCETABLES123SelectedSupplyChainDisruptions293852MajorVulnerabilitiesandCapabilitiesinSupplyChainManagementBilateralTradeFlowsofRiceandWheatforSelectImportersFIGURES123456789FreightosBalticGlobalContainerIndex33333435383943434546484950535657GlobalPassengerKilometersandCargoTonneKilometersMajorSourcesofDisruptiononSupplyChainsbeforeandafterCOVID-19BusinessContinuityArrangementsandUseofTechnologyConceptualFrameworkofSupplyChainResilienceProductsA?ectedbyCOVID-19-RelatedTradeMeasuresCOVID-19VaccineDosesAdministeredper100PeopleCOVID-19VaccineProductionCapacityTheFlowandMainComponentsoftheVaccineColdChain10PersonalProtectiveEquipmentSupplyChainBottlenecks11GlobalTradeNetworksofSelectPersonalProtectiveEquipmentProducts,201912DomesticMovementRestrictionsandMobilityinAsiaandthePaci?c13PossibleLockdownImpactonFoodSupplyChain14RiceandWheatPrices15InformalEmployment16EmploymentSharebySectorTABLES,FIGURES,ANDBOXES?viiBOXES12345DisastersTriggeredbyNaturalHazardsinAsiaandthePaci?c2832515460HowIstheCOVID-19PandemicDi?erentfromPastCrises?FoodSupplyChainDisruptionsinSelectAsianCountriesComparisonwiththe2007–2008FoodPriceCrisisTradeFacilitationforEssentialGoodsduringtheCOVID-19PandemicFOREWORDByArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbana,ESCAPTheCOVID-19pandemicdramaticallyreducedinternationaltradelastyearandsigni?cantlydisruptedglobalvaluechains,complicatingprogressinAsiaandthePaci?ctowardsustainabledevelopment.Whiletradeingoodshassincerecoveredstrongly,supplychainsneedtobemademoreresilient,particularlytoensurethesupplyofcriticalgoods.TheAsia-Paci?cTradeFacilitationReport2021showsthatdespiteCOVID-19,economiesintheregionhavemanagedtocutredtapetokeeptrade?owing,asevidencedbytheresultsofthe2021GlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation.Alsoevidentisthatdigitalizationoftradeprocedureshasaccelerated,althoughmuchmoreremainstobedone.Cross-bordertradedigitalizationhasgreatpotentialtohelpcountriesinAsiaandthePaci?caccesscriticalgoods,especiallythosemostvulnerabletotradeuncertaintyandcrisis.Thereportindicatesthatfurtheraccelerationofdigitaltradefacilitationimplementationcouldcutaveragetradecostsintheregionbymorethan13percent.ItsuggeststhattheFrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePaci?c—aUnitedNationstreatythatenteredintoforceinearly2021—providesadedicated,inclusive,andcapacity-building-focusedintergovernmentalplatformtopursuethis?agenda.Thereportalsohighlightstheneedformoreholisticandinclusivetradefacilitationstrategiesintheregiontoensurethatgroupsandsectorswithspecialneedsbene?tfromthetraderecovery.Measuresarespeci?callyneededtosupportsmallandmedium-sizedenterprises,women,andtheagriculturalsectortomaketherecoverymoresustainable.Iamcon?dentthatthisnewstudywillsupportcountriesindesigningevidence-basedmeasuresandpoliciestomakeinternationaltrademoree?cientandinclusiveandtofostergreaterregionalcooperationforAsiaandthePaci?c.Withthisourregioncanrecoverstrongerandbetterfromthepandemic.ArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbanaUnder-Secretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNationsandExecutiveSecretaryUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePaci?cviiiFOREWORDByBambangSusantono,ADBThecoronavirusdisease(COVID-19)pandemichashadsevereimpactsonmultiplesectorsofeconomiesinAsiaandthePaci?c,asdeclininginternationaltrade?owsandlowerdemandslashedoperationsinports,transporthubs,andlogisticsfacilities.Whileeconomicrecoveryisunderwayin2021,itremainsprecariousanduncertainasnewvariantsofthevirusemerge.Assuch,theCOVID-19pandemichasexposedthevulnerabilitiesofglobalandregionalvaluechainsasithasdisruptedsupply,particularlyforessentialgoodssuchaspersonalprotectiveequipment(PPE),vaccines,andfood.Exportrestrictions,strictbordercontrolsforcustomsclearance,anddrasticpublichealthmeasures,amongotherfactors,explainthedramaticimpact.Thedisruptionsoftheoutbreakhavealsounderscoredtheimportantroletradefacilitationplaysineconomiesandwillplayintherecovery.Thepandemicalsorevealedtheneedfordigital,paperlesstradeprocedurestofacilitatecross-bordermovementofcriticalgoodsduringglobalhealthemergencies,whilemaintainingopentraderegimestomaintainequitableaccesstoessentialgoods.Thisyear’sAsia-Paci?cTradeFacilitationReporthighlightstheprogressoftradefacilitationreformsduringtheCOVID-19pandemic.Itsspecialchapteronsupplychains—withcasestudiesonfoodsupplies,PPE,andvaccines—discussespandemicmitigatione?orts.Asworkersfellillamidthemobilityandsafetyrestrictions,foodsuppliesweredisrupted,especiallyasexportbansemergedinmajorfoodcropproducingcountries.Likewise,forPPE,theearlystagesofthepandemiccurtailedsupplies,particularlywithsupplychainsconcentratedinafewcountriesandleaninventorysystemsasthenorm.Quicklyboostingproductiongloballyproveddi?cult.Andforvaccines,withonlyafewcountriesabletomanufacturethem,upscalingproductionforglobalprovisionofthisonegreatdefenseagainstthevirushasbeenchallenging.Thisreporto?erspolicysuggestionsonhowtoenhancesupplychainresilience.ThepandemichaspresentedanopportunitytoaccelerateimplementationoftheWorldTradeOrganization'sTradeFacilitationAgreementtoreducetradecostsacrosstheregion,forexample.Anddevelopingeconomiescanbene?tbyimplementingdigitaltradefacilitation.Multilateralagenciescanhelpcoordinatethesee?orts,provide?nancingandtechnicalassistancetobuildinstitutionalcapacity,andhelpeconomiesacquiredigitalinfrastructure.Governmentsandtheprivatesector,too,shouldcooperatetobuildbusinesscontinuityplansandenhancesupplychainresilience.Assistance,suchasaccesstosupplychainandtrade?nance,shouldbeextendedtosmallproducers.Ihopethisreportwillimproveunderstandingoftheimpactsofthepandemicandhighlighttheimportanceoftradefacilitationreformstopost-COVID-19economicrecoveryandsustainabledevelopment.Greaterregionalcooperationisneededtoharmonizeallthetechnicalandlegalrequirementstoachievemoree?cienttradeprocedures.Weshouldactwithurgency.BambangSusantonoVice-PresidentforKnowledgeManagementandSustainableDevelopmentAsianDevelopmentBankixACKNOWLEDGMENTSThispublicationwasjointlypreparedbytheRegionalCooperationandIntegrationDivision(ERCI)oftheEconomicResearchandRegionalCooperationDepartment(ERCD)oftheAsianDevelopmentBank?(ADB),andtheTrade,InvestmentandInnovationDivision(TIID)oftheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocial?Commissionfor?AsiaandthePaci?c(ESCAP).Cyn-YoungPark,directorofERCI,ADBandYannDuval,chiefoftheTradePolicyandFacilitationSection,TIID,ESCAPledthepreparationofthispublication.ESCAPprovidedthechapteronDigitalandTradeFacilitation.Thecontributingauthors,ChorthipUtoktham,JiangyuanFu,andSooHyunKim,providedtheanalysisofnewdataforcountriesinAsiaandthePaci?c,collectedaspartoftheUnitedNationsGlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation2021.TheauthorsaregratefultoSalehinKhanandCharlesFreifromtheEconomicCommissionforEuropeforsupportingdatacollectioninCentralAsiancountries.RuixinXie,YifanTan,andLinyiChenprovidedresearch?assistance.ADBprovidedthethemechapteronSupplyChainsofCriticalGoodsamidtheCOVID-19Pandemic.ContributingauthorsincludeKijinKim,BenjaminEndriga,andSanchitaBasuDas.ResearchsupportwasprovidedbyJeromeAbesamis.KijinKimcoordinatedoverallproductionassistedbyAleliRosario.EricVanZanteditedthemanuscript.JanCarloDelaCruzcreatedthecoverdesign.JonathanYamongan?didthelayoutandtypesetting.ThematerialwasproofreadbyTuesdaySorianowithassistancefromCarolOngchangcoandAleliRosario.SupportforprintingandpublishingthisreportwasprovidedbythePrintingServicesUnitofADB’sO?ceofAdministrativeServicesandbythepublishingteamoftheDepartmentofCommunications.xABBREVIATIONSADBAsianDevelopmentBankAPECASEANCOVID-19ESCAPEUAsia-Paci?cEconomicCooperationAssociationofSoutheastAsianNationscoronavirusdiseaseEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePaci?cEuropeanUnionLaoPDRPPELaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicpersonalprotectiveequipmentPeople’sRepublicofChinaPRCSMEsTFAsmallandmedium-sizedenterprisesTradeFacilitationAgreementUnitedNationsUNWHOWTOWorldHealthOrganizationWorldTradeOrganizationxiHIGHLIGHTS??|?DigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitationinAsiaandthePaci?cTradecostsareontherise,especiallywiththerecentsurgeinshippingcosts,butcontinuoustradefacilitationimplementationcouldhelpbendthetrend.Internationalshippingcostsrecentlysurgedtoanall-timepeak,whichmayfurtherdisrupttheinternationalsupplychainwithitsheavyrelianceonseafreighttransport.ThisrecentincreasehasputadditionalpressureonalreadyhightradecostsinAsiaandthePaci?c.AccordingtotheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePaci?c(ESCAP)-WorldBankTradeCostDatabase,tradecostsinAsiaandthePaci?carethehighestinSouthAsia.CentralAsiaandthePaci?chavemadeprogressinreducingtradecostsoverthepastseveralyearsbuttheyremainhigh.EastAsiahasthelowesttradecostsamongallAsiaandPaci?csubregions,followedbytheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)subregion.The2021GlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitationshowscontinuedprogressonstreamliningtradeproceduresinAsiaandthePaci?c.Despitethecoronavirusdisease(COVID-19)pandemicandthesubsequentsupplychaindisruptionsandthesurgeinshippingcosts,thesurveyshowedthattheimplementationof31generalanddigitaltradefacilitationmeasuresroseinaverageacrosstheregionto64.9%in2021,about6percentagepointshigherthanin2019.AustraliaandNewZealand(96.8%)leadimplementationintheregion,followedbyEastAsia(82.5%),SoutheastAsiaandTimor-Leste(74.3%),theRussianFederationandCentralAsia(71.4%),andSouthAsia,Iran,andTurkey(63.1%).ThePaci?cisconsiderablybehindothersubregions,withanimplementationrateof40.1%.SouthAsia,Iran,andTurkeymademostprogress,withanincreaseofmorethan10percentagepointssince2019.ThePaci?calsomadesubstantialprogress,despitethesigni?cantchallengesandtradedisruptionsduetotheCOVID-19pandemic.Buildingoncontinuouse?ortstoimplementTradeFacilitationAgreement(TFA)-relatedmeasures,economiesinAsiaandthePaci?cwouldbene?tgreatlybygraduallymovingtowardtradedigitalization.The2021surveyshowsthattheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)TFA-relatedmeasureshavebeenwellimplementedthroughouttheregionbyimprovingtransparency(81.7%),streamliningtheformalities(75.5%),andenhancinginstitutionalarrangementandcooperationmechanisms(68.4%).Ontheotherhand,despitecontinuedimprovementofdigitalinfrastructuretofacilitatetrustedandsecuresharingoftrade-relateddataanddocumentsinelectronicform,implementationofcross-borderpaperlesstraderemainschallengingwitharegionalaverageimplementationratebelow40%.Implementationofbilateralandsubregionalpaperlesstradesystemsremainmostlyatthepilotstage,althoughthepandemiccontributedtotheaccelerationofdigitaltransformation.SimulationresultsshowthatfulldigitaltradefacilitationimplementationbeyondtheWTOTFAcouldcutaveragetradecostsintheregionbymorethan13%.TheFrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePaci?c,aUnitedNationstreatywhichenteredintoforceinearly2021,providesadedicated,inclusive,andcapacity-building–focusedintergovernmentalplatformtopursuethisagenda.Moreholisticandinclusivetradefacilitationstrategiesarerequiredtoenhancestrategiestargetinggroupsandsectorswithspecialneeds.Implementationofsustainabletradefacilitationmeasures,especiallythoseaimingforsmallandmedium-sizedenterprises(SMEs)andwomen,facebigchallenges,withaverageimplementationratesof41.7%and33.3%,respectively.Implementationofagriculturaltradefacilitationhashigherimplementationrateat58.5%.Measuresspeci?callysupportingSMEsandwomenshouldbexiiHIGHLIGHTS?xiiiadoptedanddevelopedfurther,buildinginclusiveandresilienttradefacilitationmechanisms,tosupporttheachievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.Thereportalsoshowsahighpositivecorrelationbetweendigitalandsustainabledimensionsoftradefacilitation,indicatingthatsynergiescouldbeachievedbyenhancingbothdimensions.Tradefacilitationhasemergedasane?ectivetooltomitigatethedevastatinge?ectofCOVID-19ontradebysimplifyinganddigitalizingformalitiesininternationaltrade.Thepandemichighlightedtheroleoftradefacilitationinensuringswiftmovementofmedicalandotheressentialgoods.TheTradeFacilitationinTimesofCrisissectionofthesurveyshowsthatmostgovernmentsintheregionhaveswiftlyimplementedanumberofshort-termcrisismeasuresinresponsetothepandemicandsubsequenttradedisruptions.Theimplementationrateofcrisis-relatedtradefacilitationmeasuresonlystandsat55.7%,onaverage,essentiallybecausemanycountriesstilllacklong-termtradefacilitationplanstoenhancepreparednessforfuturecrises.OverallImplementationofTradeFacilitationMeasuresin46AsiaandPaci?cCountries????EastAsia(??.??)RussianFederationandCentralAsia(??.??)SouthAsia,Iran,andTurkey(??.??)SoutheastAsiaandTimor-Leste(??.??)AustraliaandNewZealand(??.??)???????????Paci?c(??.??)TransparencyFormalitiesInstitutionalarrangementandcooperationPaperlesstradeCross-borderpaperlesstradeFSM=FederatedStatesofMicronesia,LaoPDR=LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,PRC=People’sRepublicofChina.Note:Amongthe58measuressurveyedacrosstheUnitedNationsregionalcommissions,threemeasuresincludingelectronicsubmissionofseacargomanifests,alignmentofworkingdaysandhourswithneighboringcountriesatbordercrossings,andalignmentofformalitiesandprocedureswithneighboringcountriesatbordercrossingsareexcludedwhencalculatingtheoverallscoreastheyarenotrelevanttoallcountriessurveyed.Fourtransitfacilitationmeasuresarealsoexcludedforthesamereason.Additionally,sustainabletradefacilitationandothertradefacilitationareexcludedasthesenewlyaddedgroupsofmeasureswerenotincludedintheearliersurveys,forcomparison.Source:UNGlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation..xiv?HIGHLIGHTS??|?ThemeChapter:SupplyChainsofCriticalGoodsamidtheCOVID-19PandemicSupplyChainCapabilitiesandVulnerabilityTheCOVID-19pandemiclaidbarethevulnerabilitiesofglobalizationandglobalsupplychains,asconcentratedtradenetworksandlimitinginventorieshelpedweakenthem.HighglobalvaluechainparticipationleftAsiaandthePaci?cvulnerabletorestrictivetrademeasures.Ashortageof?nancingworsenedresourceconstraints.Andeventhoughtradepolicyisacrucialanchorforthesmoothfunctioningofinternationalproductionnetworks,manyeconomiesimposedtrade-restrictingpoliciesonmedicalandagriculturegoods.Addressingthesevulnerabilitiesrequiredstrengtheningthecapabilitiesofsupplychainsinvariousareas.Buildingonpastlessons,existingnationalandregionalmechanismsandinitiativeshelpedraisecapacityforstrengtheningcollaborationandmakingsupplychainsmoree?cient.Nonetheless,newmeasureswereurgentlyneededevenasexistingonesadjustedtotheunprecedentedcrisis.VaccinesandPersonalProtectiveEquipmentLimitedvaccinesupply,logisticschallenges,lackoffundingandsta?resourcesforvaccination,andvaccinehesitancyhavehamperede?ortstoquicklyimmunizeameaningfulshareofpopulations.Thegeographicconcentrationofmajormanufacturersofvaccinesandpersonalprotectiveequipment(PPE)leavessupplyexposedtolocalizedshocksandchangesinnationalsecuritylawsandtradepolicies.Attheonsetofthepandemic,theworldencounteredcriticalshortagesofPPEandotheressentialmedicaldevices,aggravatedbyexportbansonmedicalsuppliesandPPEinsomecasestocurblocalshortages.Securingsu?cientsuppliesofvaccinesandPPEremainsanimportantchallengeinmanypartsoftheworldinvaccinerolloutsandinsustainingessentialhealthservices.Developingeconomiesneedtoaddressseverallogisticsissuestosuccessfullyimmunizetheirpopulations.Lowairtransportcapacityshouldbeaddressedasclosedairportsandlackof?ightsduringthepandemichavecreatedbottlenecks.Shipmentsmustremainsecurefromtamperingandtheftatallpointsinthesupplychainofmedicalgoods.Well-coordinatedandtimelyregulatoryapprovals,inspection,andclearancebycustomsandhealthauthoritiesareessential.Andadequate,temperature-controlledsupplychainsneedtobesecured.Yet,temperature-controlledsupplychainsarelimitedindevelopingeconomies,makingithardtoaccommodatethevarioustemperaturerequirementsofthedi?erentvaccines.FoodSupplyChainsDuringCOVID-19,foodsupplychainscameunderpressureamiddomesticandinternationaldisruptions.Domestically,travelrestrictionspreventedlocalandmigrantworkersfrommovingtofarms,processing,andHIGHLIGHTS?xvpackagingfacilities,manyofwhichwereclosedduetoquarantinerequirementsandsickworkers.Accesstofarminputsbecamechallenging.Restrictionsinurbantransportationandlogisticsservicesimpairedmovementofgoods,causinglarge-scalewastage,particularlyforhigh-valueperishablefarmproducts.Demandshockswerealsofeltasmanyfarmerswereleftwithnobuyersasrestaurants,hotels,andschools?closed.Cross-bordertransportrestrictionsdisruptedtheglobalsupplychain.Maritimetransportwasparticularlyhamperedbydisruptioninportfacilities,whichbecamecongestedamidalackofworkersandtransporttoclearcargo.Compulsoryh