喬姆斯基認為小孩生來就有能力知識學習任何人類語言學習發(fā)送

喬姆斯基認為小孩生來就有能力學習任何人類語言之一張鐵城發(fā)送2016、1、簡介下面都是英語，沒有譯文。多數(shù)網(wǎng)友能夠看懂那些孩子和大人的對話。至于，一開始看到的相關理論簡介中，確實有一些生詞。但是，70%左右應該是一級詞匯,不信你就像我那樣，試著做詞匯級別統(tǒng)計，看看如何。喬姆斯基簡介諾姆?喬姆斯基博士（AvramNoamChomsky，1928年12月7日-）或譯作“荷姆斯基”，臺灣常譯作“杭士基”，美國哲學家、語言學家、認知學家、邏輯學家、政治評論家。喬姆斯基是麻省理工學院語言學的榮譽退休教授，他的《生成語法》被認為是20世紀理論語言學研究上的重要貢獻。他對伯爾赫斯?弗雷德里克?斯金納所著《口語行為》的評論，也有助于發(fā)動心理學的認知革命，挑戰(zhàn)1950年代研究人類行為和語言方式中占主導地位的行為主義。他所采用以自然為本來研究語言的方法也大大地影響了語言和心智的哲學研究。他的另一大成就是建立了喬姆斯基層級：根據(jù)“文法生成力”不同而對形式語言做的分類。……正是在此期間，喬姆斯基開始更加公開地參與政治。隨著他1967年在《紐約書評》上發(fā)表的一篇題為「知識分子的責任」的文章，喬姆斯基成為越南戰(zhàn)爭的主要反對者之一。從那時起，喬姆斯基便因他的政治立場而出名，對世界各地的政局發(fā)表評論，并撰寫了大量著作。他對美國外交政策及美國權力合法性的批判影響深遠，并因而成為富有爭議的人物。他有左派的忠誠追隨者，但也受到右派及自由派越來越多的批評，尤其是針對他對911事件的反應。對美國外交政策的批評給喬姆斯基帶來了人身威脅。他的名字被列在特奧多?卡克辛斯基（TheodoreKaczynski,「郵箱炸彈殺手」）的預定名單上。在卡氏被捕以前，喬姆斯基讓人檢查收到的郵件以防炸彈。他自稱也經(jīng)常被警察保護，特別是在麻省理工校園的時候，雖然他本人原則上不同意這種保護。盡管對美國百般批評，喬姆斯基還是生活在美國。他的解釋是：美國仍然是世界上最偉大的國家。后來他又闡發(fā)為：「國與國之間的綜合比較沒有什么意義，我也不會這么比較。不過美國有些成就，特別是在言論自由方面幾個世紀來爭得的領先地位，是值得敬仰的。”※※※※※※※※Chomskybelieveschildrenarebornwithanabilitytolearnanyhumanlanguage.iloveenglishlanguagechildlanguageacquisitiontheory-chomsky,crystal,Aitchison&piagetChomskyNoamChomskybelievesthatchildrenarebornwithaninheritedabilitytolearnanyhumanlanguage.Heclaimsthatcertainlinguisticstructureswhichchildrenusesoaccuratelymustbealreadyimprintedonthechild’smind.Chomskybelievesthateverychildhasa‘languageacquisitiondevice’orLADwhichencodesthemajorprinciplesofalanguageanditsgrammaticalstructuresintothechild’sbrain.ChildrenhavethenonlytolearnnewvocabularyandapplythesyntacticstructuresfromtheLADtoformsentences.Chomskypointsoutthatachildcouldnotpossiblylearnalanguagethroughimitationalonebecausethelanguagespokenaroundthemishighlyirregular-adult’sspeechisoftenbrokenupandevensometimesungrammatical.Chomsky’stheoryappliestoalllanguagesastheyallcontainnouns,verbs,consonantsandvowelsandchildrenappeartobe‘hard-wired’toacquirethegrammar.Everylanguageisextremelycomplex,oftenwithsubtledistinctionswhichevennativespeakersareunawareof.However,allchildren,regardlessoftheirintellectualability,becomefluentintheirnativelanguagewithinfiveorsixyears.EvidencetosupportChomsky’stheoryChildrenlearningtospeaknevermakegrammaticalerrorssuchasgettingtheirsubjects,verbsandobjectsinthewrongorder.Ifanadultdeliberatelysaidagrammaticallyincorrectsentence,thechildwouldnotice.Childrenoftensaythingsthatareungrammaticalsuchas‘mamaball’,whichtheycannothavelearntpassively.Mistakessuchas‘Idrawed’insteadof‘Idrew’showtheyarenotlearningthroughimitationalone.Chomskyusedthesentence‘colourlessgreenideassleepfuriously’,whichisgrammaticalalthoughitdoesn’tmakesense,toprovehistheory:hesaiditshowsthatsentencescanbegrammaticalwithouthavinganymeaning,thatwecantellthedifferencebetweenagrammaticalandanungrammaticalsentencewithouteverhavingheardthesentencebefore,andthatwecanproduceandunderstandbrandnewsentencesthatnoonehaseversaidbefore.EvidenceagainstChomsky'stheoryCriticsofChomsky’stheorysaythatalthoughitisclearthatchildrendon’tlearnlanguagethroughimitationalone,thisdoesnotprovethattheymusthaveanLAD-languagelearningcouldmerelybethroughgenerallearningandunderstandingabilitiesandinteractionswithotherpeople.Dialogue-ParentandChild(3yearsold)Parent:Whatdidyoudotoday?Child:Medrawedacat.(applies-edsuffixrulebutgetswrong)Parent:Youdrewacat?Child:Yeah.(understandscorrection)Parent:Whodidyouplaywithatbreaktime?Child:MeplayedwithSarahandHelen.(wrongpronoun-notlearntpassively)Parent:Thatsoundfun.Nowwhatdoyouwantfortea?Child:Dunno.Whatyouhaving?Parent:DaddyandIarehavingfish.Child:Youhavingfishes?(incorrectuseofpluralnounbutshowschildapplyingrules)Parent:Yes.I’lldoyousomefishfingersandifyou’reagoodgirlandeatthemallyoucanhaveasweetie.(applyingpluralnounrule)Child:Mewanttwosweeties.Parent:Alrightthen.NowgoandwatchPostmanPatwhileIstartthetea.Child:WhenDaddycominghome?(getsSVOordercorrectallthetime)Parent:He’llbeheresoon.DavidCrystalDavidCrystal’sTheoryOnChildLanguageAcquisitionProfessorCrystalisbestknownforhistwoencyclopaediasTheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguageandTheCambridgeEncyclopaediaoftheEnglishLanguage.Sowhatdoesthishavetodowithchildlanguageacquisition?DavidCrystalhasthetheorythatchildrenlearnlanguageinfivestages,whicharen’tclearlydefinedandsometieinwitheachother.Thesestagesare:StageOne:Thisiswherechildrensaythingsforthreepurposes:TogetsomethingtheywantTogetsomeone’sattentionTodrawattentiontosomethingThentheybegintomakebasicstatementssuchas“daddycar”Duringthisstagechildrenbeginnamingthingswithsinglewordsandthenmoveontorelatingobjectswithotherthings,placesandpeople,forexample,“theremummy”.Theyalsorelateobjectswithevents,forexample,“birdgone”.Atthisearlystagetheydon’thavemuchvocabularysotheyuseintonationtoaskaquestion.Childrenusewordslike:“there,wantandallgone”toexpressafullsentence.Thiscouldbesaidthatpartofthisstageisholophrastic.StageTwo:Thisiswhenchildrenusuallyaskquestions,“where”questionscomefirst.Theirquestionsoftenbeginwithinterrogativepronouns(what,where)followedbyanounorverbsuchas“wheregone?”Childrenbecomeconcernedwithnamingandclassifyingthingsbyfrequentlyasking“Wassat?”Theymayalsobegintotalkaboutthecharacteristicsofthingsforexample:big/small.Childrenaretaughttolearnthingsinoppositepairssuchasup/downandhot/cold.StageThree:Bynowchildrenwouldbeaskinglotsofdifferentquestionsbutoftensignallingthattheyarequestionswithintonationalone,forexample:“Sallyplayingardenmummy?”Thisismadeintoaquestionbyvaryingthetoneofvoice.Childrensoonbegintoexpressmorecomplexwantsbyusingmoregrammaticallycorrectlanguage,forexample:“Iwantmummytotakeitwork”meaning“Iwantmummytotakeittowork”Verbssuchas“l(fā)isten”and“know”arealsoused.Childrenrefertoeventsinthepastandlessofteninthefuture.Theyusuallytalkaboutcontinuingactionforexamples:“shestillinbed”andaskaboutthestateofactions(whethersomethingisfinishedornot)Thebasicsentencestructurehasexpandedsuchas:[subject]+[verb]+[object]+[adverboranyotherelementused]Sentenceslike:“Youdryhands”and“Amandigdownthere”begintoappearandauxiliaryverbsareusedinsentencessuchas“Iamgoing”andphraseslike“onthetable”[preposition]+[article]+[noun]StageFour:Thisiswhenchildrenuseincreasinglycomplexsentencestructuresandbeginto:ExplainthingsAskforexplanationsusingtheword:“why?”Makingawiderangeofrequests:“shallIdoit?”Nowtheyareabletousecomplexsentencestructurestheyhaveflexiblelanguagetoolsforexpressingawiderangeofmeanings.Probablythemostremarkabledevelopmentistheircomprehensionoflanguageanduseofabstractverbsforexample“know”toexpressmentaloperations.Theybegintocommunicatemeaningindirectlybyreplacingimperativessuchas“giveme”withquestions;“canIhave?”Aswellassayingwhattheymeantheynowhavepragmaticunderstandingandsuittheirutterancestocontextorsituation.Childrenalsousenegation(denial/contradiction)forexample:“hedoesn’twantone!”Theydon’trelyonintonationandsignalsanymoreastheyexplainmorefully.Theyarenowabletouseauxiliaryverbsandmayduplicatemodalverbs“please,canI,mayI”Thiscouldbeshowingthat“may”isrequiredforcourtesywhilst“can”indicatesbeingabletodosomething.AndFinally…StageFive:Bythisstagechildrenregularlyuselanguagetodoallthethingsthattheyneeditfor.Theygiveinformation,askingandansweringquestions,requestingdirectlyandindirectly,suggesting,offering,statingandexpressing.Childrenarenowabletotalkaboutthingshypotheticallyandconditionallyforexample“IfIwereyou,Iwould…”Theyarenowabletoexplainconditionsrequiredforsomethingtohappen;“You’vegotturnthetaponfirstinordertowashyourhands”Aswellasmakinggeneralreferencestopastandfuture,childrennowtalkaboutparticulartimessuchas:“aftertea”and“beforebedtime”Bythisstagechildrenareverycomfortablewithallquestionsbeginningwithwordslike:“What?”and“When?”wherethesubjectandverbarereversedsuchas“whatdoesthatmean?”喬姆斯基認為小孩生來就有能力學習任何人類語言之二張鐵城發(fā)送2016、1、ScriptsStage1:Child:Allgone!Mother:Yes,themilkisallgone.Child:Mummy,here.Mother:Mummy’shere.Child:Wantmore!Mother:That’senoughmilknow.Child:No,more.Mother:Lookatdolly,she’ssleeping.Child:Dolly,there?Mother:Yes,dollyisinthebed.Child:Dollybye-bye.Stage2:Child:Where’sDaddy?Mother:Outside,look?Child:Outsidehot.Mother:Yesit’ssunny.Child:Wassat?Mother:It’sabook.Child:Bigbook.Mother:Goodgirl.Stage3:Child:Daddyissleeping?Mother:UhuhDaddy’ssleepingonthecouchisn’the?Child:Himwakeup!Mother:Nobecauseheissleeping.Thatwouldn’tbeverynicewouldit?Child:IwantDaddy.Stage4:Mother:Whatwouldyoulikeforlunch?Sandwiches?Pasta?Child:Please,may,canIhaveham?Mother:Onsandwiches?Child:*nods*Mother:What’sthemagicword?Child:Please!Mother:Doyouwantacupoforangejuice?Child:*shakeshead*Notthatone.CanIhaveapplejuice?Stage5:Mother:Didyouhaveagooddayatschooltoday?Child:Yeah,IplayedaeroplaneswithJake.IwanttobeanaeroplanedriverwhenI’molder.Mother:Apilot?Child:Yeahandflytothemoon.Mother:Nothat’sanastronaut.Doyouwanttobeapilotorandastronaut?Child:Iwouldliketobeanastra-,astra-Mother:-naut.ScriptsStage1:Child:Allgone!Holophrasetoexpressafullsentence.Theyareoperatorswhenmanipulatinglanguagethisway.Mother:Yes,themilkisallgone.Child:Mummy,here.Onlyastatementastheydon’thavemuchvocaborlanguageformsthattheycancontrol.Mother:Mummy’shere.Child:Wantmore!Mother:That’senoughmilknow.Child:No,more.Directimperative.Mother:Lookatdolly,she’ssleeping.Child:Dolly,there?Intonationtoaskquestion.Mother:Yes,dollyisinthebed.Child:Dollybye-bye.Stage2:Contraction=passivelyChild:Where'sDaddy?Begintoaskquestionsusuallybeginningwith'where'-interrogativepronoun.Mother:Outside,look?Child:Outsidehot.Abletodescribecharacteristics.Mother:Yesit'ssunny.Child:Wassat?Holophrase.Mother:It'sabook.Child:Bigbook.Abletodescribeconcretenounswithdescriptiveadjectives.Mother:Goodgirl.Stage3:Child:Daddyissleeping?Intonation=passively.'sleeping'-abletouseandunderstandcontinuousaction.Mother:UhuhDaddy'ssleepingonthecouchisn'the?Parentese.Child:Himwakeup!Morecomplexcommandbutwordsmixedup.Mother:Nobecauseheissleeping.Thatwouldn'tbeverynicewouldit?Child:IwantDaddy.Complexwantstructuredcorrectly=Subject+Verb+Object.Stage4:Motherusesmorecomplexsentencesaschildcanunderstandthem.Mother:Whatwouldyoulikeforlunch?Sandwiches?Pasta?Prompting.Child:Please,may,can1haveham?Duplicatemodalverbs.Indirectasreplacesimperativewithquestionaslearningmanners/rulesofgeneralconversation.Mother:Onsandwiches?Child:*nods*Mother:What'sthemagicword?Pragmatic.Child:Please!Mother:Doyouwantacupoforangejuice?Child:*shakeshead*Notthatone.Can1haveapplejuice?Abletousegestures/signals.Negation.Stage5:Mother:Didyouhaveagooddayatschooltoday?Abletogiveinformationabouthis/herday.Knowstimephraseforfuture.Child:Yeah,IplayedaeroplaneswithJake.IwanttobeanaeroplanedriverwhenI'molder.Mother:Apilot?Child:Yeahandflytothemoon.Expressingexactlyandhasknowledgei.e.actuallyknowsaboutthemoon.Mother:Nothat'sanastronaut.Doyouwanttobeapilotorandastronaut?Child:Iwouldliketobeanastra-,astra-Abletouseconditionaltense.Tryingtopronounceasitisadifficultword.Mother:-naut.DevelopmentofGrammarThelearningofgrammarisanunnoticeableprocessandithappensveryquickly.Overthreeorfouryears,childrenmasterthegrammarofthelanguage.Whentheyattendtheirfirstschool,theygivetheimpressionofhavingassimilatedatleast3/4ofallgrammarthereistolearn.StagesofGrammaticalGrowth:Theearlieststageishardlylikegrammaratall,asitconsistsofutterancesofonlyonewordlong,forexample‘dada'or‘hi'.Approximately60%ofthesewordshaveanamingfunctionand20%expressandaction.Mostchildrenofaround12-18monthsgothroughthisstage,knownastheholophrasticstageastheyputtheequivalentofawholesentenceintoasingleword.Thisnextstageismorelikerealgrammarfrom18monthsto2years.Itisknownasthetwo-wordstageasthechildrenput2wordstogethertomakeonesentencestructure.Forexample,'catjump'whichissubject+verb,or'shutdoor'whichisverb+objectBytheendofthisstageweareleftwiththeimpressionthatchildrenhavelearnedseveralbasiclessonsaboutEnglishwordorder.Thisnextstageisfillingsimplesentencepatternsbyaddingextraelementsofclausestructureandmakingtheelementsmorecomplex.3elementsforexample'Daddygotcar'andthen4elements"yougobednow'fshowthisprogress.Orthechildrenstarttoaskquestionslike'whereDaddyputcar?'.Thistakesupmuchofthethirdyearandisknownasthetelegraphicstageassimplewordslikedeterminerse.g.the,areleftoutbutthesentenceisstillunderstood.At3years,sentencesbecomemuchlongerasthechildrenstringclausestogethertoexpressmorecomplexthoughtsandtotellsimplestories.Childrenatthisstagecommonlyuse'and'orotherlinkingwordssuchas"because1f‘so'f'then'etc.At4years,thechildrenare"sortingout'theirgrammar.Forexamplemostchildrenattheageof3%mightsay"himgivedthecheesetothemouses'.Howeverat4%yearstheywouldsay'hegavethecheesetothemice'.Thisexplainsthattheyhavelearnttheformsoftheirregularnoun‘mice'andtheverb'gave',andthepronoun'he'.After4%years,therearestillfeaturesofgrammartobeusedsuchassentence-connectingfeatures.Thisprocesswillcontinueuntilearlyteenswhenthelearningofgrammarbecomesmoreindistinguishable.ActivewithPassiveCrystalcarriedoutanexperimenttestingwhetherchildrenatcertainagesusedactiveorpassivesentences.Hisstudyshowsthatataround3yearsold,noneofthechildrenproducedapassivesentence.Howeverashetestedolderchildrentheywerebeginningtousemorepassivesentences.At7years,theabilitytousepassivesdramaticallyincreased.FoundationYearCrystalbelievesthatlanguageacquisitionisnotjustaboutproducingsounds,butalsoaboutbeingabletoperceivesoundsandunderstandthemeaningofutterancesthatpeoplemake.Hesaysthatbabiesrespondtodifferenttypesofsoundsbybeingabletodistinguishbetweendifferentvoices.Beforethebabiesare1dayoldtheycantellwhichistheirmother'svoicetosomeoneelse'svoice.Aswellascontrastsinintonationandrhythm.Thebabiesalsoshowsignsofcomprehensionbetween2and4months.Theydothisbyrespondingtodifferentadulttonesofvoicesuchasangryorsoothing.Between6and9months,thechildlearnstorecognisedifferentutterancesinsituationsforexample'claphands’or'saybye-bye’.Towardstheendofthefirstyears,thechildrenshowasignofverballearningwhetheritisnamesofpeopleorobjects.Thereforeknowingthemeaningofatleast20wordsbytheendofthefirstyearbeforeevenutteringaword.OverallCrystal'stheorywasthatchildrenlearninamorphousstagesbytrialanderrortosuccessfullylearnthelanguage.Theylearninstagesofgrammar,differenttypesofquestioninge.g.intonationandrecognisingtherhythmsofvoices.JeanAitchisonJeanAitchisonisaRupertMurdochProfessorofLanguageandCommunicationintheFacultyofEnglishLanguageandLiteraturattheUniversityofOxford.Ideathat“l(fā)anguagehasabiologicallyorganizedschedule”.Childreneverywherefollowasimilarpattern.Intheirfirstfewweeks,babiesmostlycry.AsRonaldKnoxoncesaid:'Aloudnoiseatoneend,andnosenseofresponsibilityattheother.’Cryingexercisesthelungsandvocalcords.Butcryingmayoncehavehadafurtherevolutionarypurpose.Yellingbabiesmayhaveremindedparentsthattheiroffspringexist:deafringdovesforgetabouttheirexistingbrood,andgooffandstartanother.In1987,sheidentifiedthreestagesthatoccurduringachild’sacquisitionofvocabulary:labeling,packagingandnetworkbuildin.gLabeling-Thefirststageandinvolvesmakingthelinkbetweenthesoundsofparticularwordsandtheobjectstowhichtheyrefere.g.understandingthat“mummy”referstothechild’smother.Inotherwords,associatinganamewithsomething.Packaging-Thisentailsunderstandingaword’srangeofmeaning.ThisiswhenOverextensionandUnderextensionbecomeahurdleinthedevelopmentofthelanguage.NetworkBuilding-Thisinvolvesgraspingtheconnectionsbetweenwords;understandingthatsomewordsareoppositeinmeaning.AitchisonarguedthattherearenoEXACTdatestowhichachildreachesacertainstageoflearninglanguage-somechildrenlearnfasterthanothers.Shebelievedthatthespeedoflearningisinfluencedbybothinnateabilitiesandenvironment.Languageispartlylearnedbyimitation,soparentsandbrothers/sistersplayaroleintheaccelerationoflearningthelanguage.Babytalkwhilstlearningtospeakcouldhinderthechildinlearningtospeaklateron.Speechtimetablecreatedfrombirthtotenyearsold.Dialogues:1.)AccordingtoAitcheson’sTimetableofSpeech,childrengrasptheuseofsinglewordsatmonth12.M:Mmm!isn’tthatnice?C:More.M:Okay!Herecomestheaeroplane!C:Yeh.2.)Bytheageof2,theunderstandingofwordendingsbeginstoappear.However,it’sabitcomplicatedattimesforthechildtoalwaysgetitright,assomepasttenseverbsrequirenoendinganditisplacedbythechildanyway.Thisisanexampleofthemlearningactively.D:AreyougoingtotellMummywhatyoudidtoday?C:Irodedonahorsie!!.)Duringtheageof2iswhenAi