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英語語言學(xué)中的一些基本定義語言學(xué)語言學(xué)定義:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.語言學(xué)語言學(xué)感念區(qū)分:(1)規(guī)定性與描寫性(Prescriptiveanddescriptive)規(guī)定性:為語言確立規(guī)則描述性:分析語言實際運用(2)共時性與歷時性(Synchronicanddiachronic)共時性:對語言在歷史的某一時間點描述歷時性:語言在某一段時間內(nèi)的歷史發(fā)展(3)言語與文字(speechandwriting)口語與書面語(4)語言和言語(Langueandparole[p??ro?l])語言:一個話語社團(tuán)所有成員共有的抽象的語言系統(tǒng)言語:語言在實際運用中的實現(xiàn)(5)語言能力與語言運用(competenceandperformance)語言能力:語言使用者對語言規(guī)則方面的知識語言運用:將這種知識在交流中具體體現(xiàn)出來。Chapter1Introduction[A]
Whatislinguistics?
什么是語言學(xué)ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage
(對語言進(jìn)行的科學(xué)研究
)為什么scientific?答案在書上Processoflinguisticstudy:①
Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;②
Hypothesesareformulated;③
Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;④
Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.[B]ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics普通語言學(xué)
:thestudyoflanguageasawhole從整體研究微觀上1.Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)2.Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)3.Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)4.Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences)5.Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstraction6.Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse宏觀上Sociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics[C]Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics①
Prescriptivevs.Descriptive
規(guī)定性與描寫性②
Synchronicvs.Diachronic
共時性與歷時性(現(xiàn)代英語多研究共時性)
Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.③
Speechandwriting
言語與文字
Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten為什么spokenlanguage要好?答案在書上④
Langueandparole
語言和言語ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity(指一個話語
社團(tuán)所有成員共有的語言系統(tǒng))Parole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse(指語言在實際運用中的實現(xiàn))⑤
Competenceandperformance
語言能力與語言運用ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological)Competence:theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.(理想的語言使用者關(guān)于語言規(guī)
則方面的知識)Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticscommunication.(這種知識在語言
交流中的具體實現(xiàn))⑥
traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics《courseingenerallinguistics》索緒爾
markedthemodernlinguistics索緒爾
社會學(xué)
喬姆斯基
心理學(xué)Whatislanguage?
什么是語言[A]ThedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
(語言是一個具有任意
性、用于人類交流的語音符號系統(tǒng)。
)a)
System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules
(根據(jù)規(guī)則組合在一起)b)
Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor(語言符號和
符號所代表的事物之間沒有內(nèi)在的必然的聯(lián)系)c)
Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages
(所有語言的首要媒介都是聲音)d)
Human:languageishuman-specific
(語言是人類所獨有的)[B]
Designfeatures(uniqueproperties):thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication
(識別特征
是指人類語言區(qū)別于任何動物交際系統(tǒng)的本質(zhì)特征)①Arbitrariness(任意性)Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.(意義和語音之間沒有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系;雖然是任意性的,但并非完全任意)a)echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwords(擬聲詞)(rumblecrashcacklebang)b)somecompoundwords(某些復(fù)合詞)②Productivity/creativity(能產(chǎn)性,創(chuàng)造性)
Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(Creativityoropen-endedness)③
Duality(雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性,兩重性或二元性)Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword(doublearticulation)(語言是一個系統(tǒng),包含兩組結(jié)構(gòu)或者兩個層面。在較低
/基本層面存在著語音結(jié)構(gòu),其自身沒有什么意義;較高層面存在著意義單位;結(jié)構(gòu)的雙重性
/語言的雙層性)④Displacement(跨時空性,移位性)
Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker(refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations)⑤Culturaltransition(文化傳遞性)
Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis(everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage),thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.[C]
fuctionoflanguage主要功能①
descriptivefuction
描述功能②
expressivefunction
表達(dá)功能③
socialfunction
社會功能基本功能SixelementsofaspeecheventspecifiedbyRomanJakobson
俄羅斯Addresser-Emotive動機/情感功能Addressee–
意動功能Context-Referential
參考功能Message-Poetic
詩意功能Contact-Phaticcommunion
交際性/寒暄功能Code-Metalinguistic
元語言功能宏觀功能Ideational
概念功能Interpersonal
人際功能Textual
語篇功能Chapter2Phonology音位學(xué)
[A]Thedefinitionofphonetics(語音學(xué))
Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.(是指對語言的語音媒介進(jìn)行的研究,它關(guān)注語言世界中的所有語音)
Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.(發(fā)音語音學(xué))Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.(聲學(xué)語音學(xué))Auditory(orperceptual)phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.(聽覺語音學(xué))
[B]Organsofspeech(發(fā)音器官)
Voiceless:清音
whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.
聲帶不震動Voiced(Voicing):濁音
whenthevocalcords(聲帶)aredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.
聲帶振動AlltheEnglishvowels(元音)aretypicallyvoiced(voicing).
Theimportantcavities:Thepharyngealcavity咽腔Theoralcavity口腔Thenasalcavity鼻腔
其他部位:1.Lips唇2.teeth齒3.teethridge(alveolus)齒齦4.hardpalate硬腭5.softpalate(velum)軟腭6.uvula小舌7.tipoftongue舌尖8.bladeoftongue舌面9.backoftongue舌后10.vocalcords聲帶
[C]Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds:Broadandnarrowtranscriptions(語音的正字法表征:寬式/窄式標(biāo)音)
IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association國際語音協(xié)會/國際音標(biāo))提供了兩種表音方式:1.
Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly(代表字母的符號)2.
Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(變音符)
E.g.:[l][li:f]--aclear[l][l][bild]--adark[l][l][help]--adental[l][p][pit]--anaspirated[p][p][spit]--anunaspirated[p]
[D]ClassificationofEnglishconsonants(英語輔音的分類)
Intermsofmannerofarticulation根據(jù)發(fā)音方法分
(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated)
①Stops閉塞音:theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly[p]/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g]②Fricatives摩擦音:theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[∫]/[з],[θ]/[δ],[h](approximant)③Affricates塞擦音:theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricatives[t∫]/[dз]④Liquids流音:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth[l]alateralsound;[r]retroflex⑤Glides滑音:[w],[j](semi-vowels)Liquid+glides+[h]approximants⑥Nasals鼻音:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughit[m],[n],[η]Byplaceofarticulation
根據(jù)發(fā)音部位分
(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated)
①bilabial雙唇音:upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructions[p]/[b],[w](velar)②labiodentals唇齒音:thelowerlipandtheupperteeth[f]/[v]③dental齒音:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth[θ]/[δ]④alveolar齒齦音:thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]⑤palatal腭音:tongueinthemiddleofthepalate[θ]/[δ],[t∫]/[dз],[j]⑥velars軟腭因:thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum[k],[g],[η]⑦glottal喉音:theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynx[h]
[E]ClassificationofEnglishvowels(英語元音的分類)
Monophthongs①Thehighestpositionofthetongue:front,central,back;
舌在口腔中的位置:前中后元音②Theopennessofthemouth:close,semi-close,semi-open,open;
口腔的張開程度:閉,半閉,半開,開元音③Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips):
嘴唇的形狀:圓唇和非圓唇Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsAllthebackvowels,except[A:]areroundedvowels④Thelengthofthesound:longvowels&shortvowelstensevowels&laxvowels元音的發(fā)音長度:長短元音/緊松元音
Diphthongs其第一組成部分為[i]或[u]:[ei][ai][?i][au][?u]集中雙元音其第二組成部分為[?]:[i?][ε?][u?]
[F]Thedefinitionofphonology(音位學(xué))
Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.
有其一般性的本質(zhì),對所有人類語言的所有語音都感興趣。
Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguages;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
發(fā)現(xiàn)一門語言中的語音是如何形成模式的,這些語音是如何在語言交際中用來傳達(dá)意義的。
[G]Phone,phoneme,andallophone(音素、音位、音位變體)
Phone:aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment(音素是一個語音單位或者說語音段)
相當(dāng)于所有的音Phoneme:aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,itisanabstractunit.(音位是一個音位學(xué)的單位,而且是一個有區(qū)別意義的單位,是一個抽象的單位)相當(dāng)于broadtranscriptionAllophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.(在不同的語音環(huán)境下代表某個音位的音素被稱為該音位的音位變體)
[H]Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,minimalpair(音位對立、互補分布、最小對立體)
Phonemiccontrast:(兩個音位之間的關(guān)系)whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they’reinphonemiccontrast.E.g.pin&bin
/p/vs./b/rope&robe
/p/vs./b/(要會判斷)
Complementarydistribution
:(音位變體之間的關(guān)系)twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.
Minimalpair
:(彼此語音數(shù)量相等,彼此意義不同,僅存在一個語音差異,語音差異出現(xiàn)在一個位置上)whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.
[I]Somerulesinphonology
①
sequentialrules
序列規(guī)則Phonotacticsof3consonantsoccurringinonset:如果三個輔音都出現(xiàn)在詞首,必須遵循以下三條規(guī)則:1./s/第一個音位一定是/s/2.voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/第二個音位一定是/p/,/t/,/k/3.approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/第三個音位一定是/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/
②
assimilationrules
同化規(guī)則Co-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation.Assimilation&elisioneffects元音省略Assimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheotherE.g.nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.鼻音化現(xiàn)象
③
deletionrule/Elision
省略規(guī)則Definition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolationE.g.deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant省略詞末鼻輔音前的[g]音
[J]Suprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征)
①
Stress重音Wordstress&sentencestressThestressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelement英語中的重音位置可以區(qū)別意義
②
Tone
聲調(diào)Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.像音素一樣可以區(qū)別意義Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones.漢語就是一種典型的聲調(diào)語言,有四個音調(diào)Level,rise,fall-rise,fall陰平陽平上聲去聲
③
Intonation
語調(diào)Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtones四種語調(diào)Thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltone降調(diào)聲調(diào)將聲調(diào)升降調(diào)Chapter3Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)
[A]Thedefinitionofmorphology
Morphology
isabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.(指對詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則的研究)Morpheme:詞素themostbasicelementofmeaning.(意義的最基本要素)(Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction
最小的意義單位或者語法功能)
[B]openclassandclosedclass
1.
開放性詞類:名詞動詞形容詞副詞2.
封閉性詞類:語法性或者功能性的詞連詞介詞冠詞代詞
[C]Freemorphemes&boundmorphemes(自由詞素和黏著詞素)
Freemorphemes:canstandbythemselvesassinglewords
Lexicalmorphemes
[n.a.v]&
functionalmorphemes
[n.]Boundmorphemes:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherform
Derivationalmorphemes派生詞素(有些詞素能改變詞的范疇或者詞的語法類)affix詞綴(suffix,infix,prefix)+root后綴中綴前綴+詞根
Inflectionalmorphemes
曲折詞素(有些詞素附著于單詞或者詞素,但是它們永遠(yuǎn)不會改變其句法范疇)8typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglish第一大類:Noun+-’s,-s[possessive所有格;plural復(fù)數(shù)]第二大類:Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[thirdpersonpresentsingular第三人稱單數(shù);presentparticiple現(xiàn)在分詞;pasttense過去式,pastparticiple過去分詞]第三大類:Adj+-er,-est[comparative比較級;superlative最高級]
Allomorph:語素的不同變化形式
[D]Derivationalvs.Inflectional
派生(范疇/語類)和曲折(語法標(biāo)志)
Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofaword
只表示語法標(biāo)志(時態(tài)、數(shù)、格)
Inflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory詞的范疇
DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder:root(stem)+derivational+inflectional詞根/詞干+派生+曲折
[E]MorphologicalRules
形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則(詞的構(gòu)成方式詞素是怎樣組合成為詞)
1.
morphologicalrules:詞素音位規(guī)則(這些規(guī)則決定了詞素是如何組合而構(gòu)成單詞的)2.
productivemorphologicalrules:能產(chǎn)性詞素音位規(guī)則(有些詞素音位規(guī)則能夠相當(dāng)自由地用來構(gòu)造新詞)
[F]Word-formationprocess(構(gòu)詞法)
?Derivation派生構(gòu)詞法?Compounding復(fù)合構(gòu)詞法?Reduplication重疊構(gòu)詞法?Blending截搭構(gòu)詞法
?Clipping截短構(gòu)詞法?conversion詞性轉(zhuǎn)化構(gòu)詞法?backformation逆構(gòu)?Initialism&acronym詞首字母縮略構(gòu)詞法?Loans/borrowings借詞?onomatopoeia擬聲構(gòu)詞法?coinage新造詞語具體自己查閱資料Chapter4Syntax句法學(xué)
[A]ThedefinitionofsyntaxSyntax:
Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandrulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences(句法學(xué)是研究詞是如何組成句子以及如何支配句子構(gòu)成規(guī)則的一個語言學(xué)分支)
[B]Somecategories(句法范疇)
Syntacticcategories:refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicate句法范疇是指某一特定語言中執(zhí)行相同或者相近功能的一組語言項目,如句子,名詞短語,或者動詞。
1.詞層面的范疇
Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories):N.V.Adj.Adv.Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories):Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.Phrasalcategories:NP,VP,PP,AP
DeterminationMeaning
e.g.,penbook,kick
Inflection
e.g.,boys;helped,cleverest
Nouns----pluralaffix:–s
Verbs----tenseaffix:–ed,-ing
Adjectives-----erand
-est
Distribution
e.g.,thegirl,willgo,toobright
Det+nouns:
thegirl,acard,
Aux+verbs:
shouldstay,willgo,
Deg+adjectives
verycool,toobright.
2.短語范疇
specifier+head+complement
head
中心語
specifier
標(biāo)志語
出現(xiàn)在中心語的左邊(限定語作為名詞的標(biāo)志語;修飾語作為動詞的標(biāo)志語;程度詞作為形容詞的標(biāo)志語)
complements
補語
出現(xiàn)在中心語的右邊(補語也是短語)
modifier
修飾語WhenamodiferproceedsHead,it'splacedafterthespecifier,whenitfollowsHead,it'splacedafterthecomplement.(動詞最為常見的修飾語是描述方式和時間的副詞短語和介詞短語,名詞最為常見的修飾語是形容詞短語)
XP→(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)
NP→(Det)N(PP)…e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl
VP→(Qual)V(NP)…e.g.oftenhavenoodlesforlunchAP→(Deg)A(PP)…e.g.veryhotinsummerPP→(Deg)P(NP)…e.g.almostwithouthesitation
[C]短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則
①coordinationrules
并列規(guī)則Somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,andbut.X→X*ConX
②XP規(guī)則就是短語范疇里面的內(nèi)容XP→(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)
[D]句子規(guī)則
1.
inflectionphraseInflP(=S)
NP+
Infl+
VPConsideringeverysentencehastenseandagreement,ittakesanabstractcategory“inflection”(Infl)asitshead.
2.
transformation
不能用第一種方法表示的
一
Auxiliarymovement
(帶有助動詞的一般疑問句)
Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.Step2:formayes-noquestionusingtransformation.Inversion
MoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.
二
Doinsertion
(不帶有助動詞的一般疑問句)
Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.DoinsertionisneededincaseofanemptyInflposition.Step2:formayes-noquestionusinginversion(倒置).Doinsertion---InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.
三
Wh-movement
(特殊疑問句)
surfacestructure:itisthatofthe
sentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.deepstructure:formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorization
properties
Wh-movement(Revised)
---
MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.
1.
Whphraseascomplementofaverborpreposition;
Whatshouldthestudentreport?thestudentshouldreportwhat
2.
Whphraseasasubject;
Whowonthegame?
3.
Whmovementinrelativeclauses.
Thedog(thathekeeps)bitesThedog(hekeepswhat)bites.
四
Moveαandconstraintsontransformations
Moveα(orMoveAlpha)ruleisageneraltermforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement(includingauxiliarymovement,wh-movement,etc.).However,syntacticmovementisnotatrandom.Chapter5Semantics語義學(xué)
[A]ThedefinitionofsemanticsSemantics:
語義學(xué)可以簡單地定義為對意義的研究。
[B]Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning關(guān)于意義研究的一些觀點
①thenamingtheory命名論(只能命名名詞還有抽象名詞也不行)由柏拉圖提出的。②theconceptualistview概念論由奧格登和理查茲提出的Thought/reference
concept思想/指稱Symbol/Form(words)符號/形式Referent(realobject)所指三角狀態(tài)③contextualism:
J.R.Firth
語境論④behaviorismBloomfield行為主義論
言者發(fā)出該形式的場景和它在聽者身上所起的反應(yīng)。
[C]Senseandreference(意義和指稱)
Sense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized.(主要涉及語言形式的固有意義,是抽象,不與語境相關(guān)的)
Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience(指語言形式在現(xiàn)實物質(zhì)世界中的事物,是語言成分和非語言的經(jīng)驗世界之間的關(guān)系)(andifbut不指稱任何事物)
[D]Majorsenserelations(主要的意義關(guān)系)
①
synonymy同義現(xiàn)象
a.dialectalsynonyms方言同義詞
(美式/英式英語)(fallautumn)不同地區(qū)方言中所用的同義詞
b.stylisticsynonyms文體同義詞
(問題、正式度不同)(oldmandaddydadfathermaleparent)文體上存在差異的同義詞
c.synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感或評價意義不同的同義詞(褒貶義)情感或評價意義存在差異的同義詞
d.collocationalsynonyms搭配同義詞(詞語搭配、用法)(rottentomatoes,addledeggs)搭配的同義詞
e.semanticallydifferentsynonyms語義不同的同義詞(意義上稍有不同)(amazeastond)語義上存在差異的同義詞
②
polysemy多義現(xiàn)象
③
homonymy同音異義
Homophones:同音異義發(fā)音一樣(rainreign/nightknight/piecepeace/leakleek)
Homographs:同形異義拼寫一樣(bowv.n./tearv.n./leadn.v.)
Completehomonyms:完全同音異義詞(fastadj.v./scalen.v.)
④
hyponymy下義關(guān)系
——inclusiveness包含關(guān)系
上坐標(biāo)詞(flower)
下坐標(biāo)詞(rosetulicarnationlilymorningglory)
⑤
antonymy反義詞
——oppositeness
Gradableantonyms等級反義詞(有中間詞,程度不同)(oldyoung)
Complementaryantonyms互補反義詞(兩個極端dead/alive,male/female)
Relationalopposites:關(guān)系反義詞
(husbandwife)
[E]Senserelationsbetweensentences句子之間的意義關(guān)系
①XissynonymouswithY(X與Y同義)如果X真,Y真;X假,Y也假
②XisinconsistentwithY(X與Y不一致)如果X真,Y假;X假,Y真
③XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)(X蘊含Y(Y是X的一個含義))如果X真,Y一定真(去過法國一定去過歐洲)如果X假,Y有可能真(沒去過法國去/沒去過歐洲歐洲)
④XpresupposesY(YisaprerequisiteofX)(X預(yù)設(shè)Y(Y是X的先決條件))如果X真,Y一定真如果X假,Y仍然真
⑤XisacontradictionX自我矛盾(總是假)
⑥XissemanticallyanomalousX語義反常
[F]Componentialanalysisawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning(成分分析法分析詞匯意義的方法)
Semanticfeatures語義特征
這個理論是基于這樣一個信念:一個詞的意義能被分解成被稱為語義特征的意義成分。
加號和減號用來表示一個詞的意義中是否存在某一個語義特征,而且這些特征通常用大寫字母書寫。例如,man一詞可以分析為是由+human,+adult,+animate,+male這些特征構(gòu)成。
Showhowthosewordsarerelatedinmeaning,成分分析提供了一個洞察詞義的方法和研究意義的詞之間的關(guān)系的方法。
[G]PredicationanalysisawaytoanalyzesentencemeaningproposedbyBritishlinguist
G.Leech
(述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析法分析句子意義的方法)
Semanticanalysis:
Predication(basicunit)述謂結(jié)構(gòu)
基本單位適用于任何句子形式,包括陳述句,祈使句和疑問形式。
theabstractmeaningofthesentence句子的抽象意義
Argument(s)
變元(名詞成分)
predicate謂詞(謂語)一個述謂結(jié)構(gòu)由變元和謂詞構(gòu)成。一個變元就是一個述謂結(jié)構(gòu)的邏輯參與者,等同于一個句子的名詞性成分。謂詞是對變元所作的陳述或陳述一個句子中連接變元之間的邏輯關(guān)系。
Tomsmokes.
TOM(SMO
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