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熊海虹主編《高等學(xué)校研究生英語綜合教程-上》Unit7-Unit10課文翻譯及課后練習(xí)答案UnitSevenONHUMANNATUREFrankandLydiaHammer我對(duì)人類的了解越多,對(duì)他們的期望就越低。和以前相比,我現(xiàn)在常常以較寬松的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)把一個(gè)人叫做好人?!姞枴ぜs翰遜博士論人性弗蘭克,莉迪亞·漢默爾1Humannatureisthebasisofcharacter,thetemperamentanddisposition;itisthatindestructiblematrixuponwhichthecharacterisbuilt,andwhoseshapeitmusttakeandkeepthroughoutlife.Thiswecallaperson'snature.1人性是性格、氣質(zhì)和性情的基礎(chǔ),性格正是基于這種牢不可破的基質(zhì)之上的,它必須以這種基質(zhì)的形式存在,并將它保留終生,這種基質(zhì),我們稱之為一個(gè)人的本性。2Thebasicnatureofhumanbeingsdoesnotandcannotchange.Itisonlythesurfacethatiscapableofalteration,improvementandrefinement;wecanalteronlypeople'scustoms,manners,dressandhabits.Astudyofhistoryrevealsthatthepeoplewhowalkedthisearthinantiquityweremovedbythesamefundamentalforces,wereswayedbythesamepassions,andhadthesameaspirationsasthemenandwomenoftoday.Thepursuitofhappinessstillengrossesmankindtheworldover.2人類的本性不會(huì)也不能改變,只有一些表面特征才會(huì)變化、改善和進(jìn)一步提升;我們可以改變?nèi)藗兊娘L(fēng)格、舉止、衣著和習(xí)慣。一項(xiàng)歷史研究表明,曾經(jīng)行走在地球上的古人們和今天的男男女女們受著同樣的基本力量驅(qū)使,被同樣的激情左右并有著同樣的抱負(fù),時(shí)至今日,對(duì)幸福的追求仍然是全世界人類全身心投入的事業(yè)。3Moreovernoonewisheshisnaturetochange.OnemaycovetthepositionofPresidentorKing,butwouldnotchangeplaceswiththemunless,itmeantthecontinuanceofhisownidentify.Eachmanseeshimselfasunique,andsofarasheisconcernedthehuboftheuniverse,differentfromanyotherindividual.ApologiesareinorderwhenMr.SmithismistakenforMr.Jones.3此外,沒有人希望改變自己的本性,有人可能會(huì)覬覦總統(tǒng)或國(guó)王的職位,但不會(huì)和他們交換位置,除非那意味著他自己身份的繼續(xù)。每個(gè)人都把自己看成是獨(dú)特個(gè)體,而且,就他而言,他就是宇宙的中心,有別于其他任何人。如果有人把史密斯先生誤認(rèn)作瓊斯先生,這人就該道歉。4Everymanunfoldsadistinctcharacteroverwhichcircumstancesandeducationhaveonlythemostlimitedcontrol.Notwopeoplewilleverdrawthesameconclusionsfromthesameexperiences,buteachmustinterpreteventsandfitthemintothemosaicofhisownlife'spattern.Humannatureisevertrueitself,nottosystemsoffaithoreducation.Eachholdstothestructureofthemoldintowhichthesoulwascastatthetimeofitsindividualization.Thequalitiesborninoneremainaspotentialswhethertheyhaveachancetodevelopornot.Underpressure,orchangeofinterest,theycanpartiallyorwhollydisappearfromview,torconsiderableperiodsoftime;butnothingcanpermanentlymodifythem,nothingcanobliteratethem.4每個(gè)人都表現(xiàn)出一種與眾不同的性格,而環(huán)境和教育對(duì)性格的影響都極其有限。兩個(gè)人從相同的經(jīng)歷中也不會(huì)得出相同的結(jié)論,但是兩個(gè)人會(huì)各自分析這些事件并將它們?nèi)诤系阶约贺S富的生活模式中去。人性總是忠于它本身,而不受信仰或教育體制左右。一個(gè)人的個(gè)性和他獨(dú)特的天性在出生時(shí)就已經(jīng)形成了,而且不會(huì)改變。一個(gè)人與生俱來的品質(zhì),無論是否有機(jī)會(huì)發(fā)展,都保持為潛力。在遭受壓力或興趣變化的情況下,他們會(huì)部分或全部地消失相當(dāng)一段時(shí)間,但是沒有什么能永久地改變他們,也沒有什么能把他們抹去。5Theconstancyofhumannatureisproverbial,asnoonebelievesthatamancanfundamentallychangehisnature.Thisiswhyitissodifficultforonewhohasacquiredanunsavoryreputationtore-establishhimselfinpublicconfidence.Peopleknowfromexperiencethatanindividualwhoinoneyeardisplaysknavishcharacteristics-seldominthenextbecomesanydifferent.Nordoesathiefbecomeatrustworthyemployee,oramiseraphilanthropist.Nordoesamanchangeandbecomealiar,cowardortraitoratfiftyorsixty;ifheisonethen,hehasbeenoneeversincehischaracterwasformed.Bigcriminalsarefirstlittlecriminals,justasgiantoaksarefirstlittleacorns.5人性的恒定性是眾所周知的,因?yàn)闆]有人相信一個(gè)人能夠從根本上改變他的本性。這就是為什么一個(gè)惡名遠(yuǎn)揚(yáng)的人很難重建公眾對(duì)他的信心。人們憑經(jīng)驗(yàn)知道某一年中表現(xiàn)出無賴性格的人不太可能在第二年有任何改觀。小偷也不會(huì)變成值得信賴的員工。吝嗇鬼也不可能變成慈善家。而且,一個(gè)人不會(huì)在五六十歲的時(shí)候變成謊話精、懦夫或叛徒,如果那時(shí)候他是,那么早在他性格形成的時(shí)候他就已經(jīng)是了。大罪犯最初都是小罪犯,正如大橡樹最初都是小橡果。6Althoughmanispotentiallyperfectheisfarfrombeingactuallyso.Ifhewereactuallyperfecttherewouldbenothingforpreachersandhumanitarianstodo;nouseforchurches,schools,courtsandprisons.Thereforewhileitisimpossibletochangehumannature,itcanbestudied,controlledanddirected,andthisshouldbethesupremefunctionofourreligious,educationalandsocialinstitutions.6盡管人類有完美的潛質(zhì),但事實(shí)上他遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)沒有達(dá)到完美。如果事實(shí)上他已經(jīng)是完美的,那么那些神父、教師和人道主義者便會(huì)無事可做;那些教堂、學(xué)校、法庭和監(jiān)獄便會(huì)無所用處。因此雖然人性是不可能改變的,但是人們可以研究它、控制它和引導(dǎo)它。而且這應(yīng)該是我們的宗教機(jī)構(gòu)、教育機(jī)構(gòu)和社會(huì)機(jī)構(gòu)的最高職能。7Manisperfectasaseedisperfect,germinally.Thespiritisperfect,butwhenitinhabitshumanstructures,itparticipatesintheimperfectionsofthelater;andduringitsassociationwithmattertakesonthemortalweakness,desiresandlimitations.Butthespirit,theinnerman,remainsuntouchedandundefiledbyevil.Onlytheouterman-thepersonalityandthephysicalbody-becomesimperfect,duetoignorance,wrongthinkingandviolationofthelawofbeing.Theouterman,too,wasoriginallyperfect,butmanhassodesecratedandabuseditthattodayitisafarcryfromtheoriginalmodel.7人類在胚胎期是完美的,就好比一粒種子,在幼芽期是完美的一樣。精神是完美的,但它棲居到人類肉體結(jié)構(gòu)中后,便參與其中,表現(xiàn)出后者的不完美。在它與物質(zhì)的聯(lián)系過程中呈現(xiàn)出凡人的弱點(diǎn)、欲望和局限。但是精神,也就是人的內(nèi)在,卻仍能免遭邪惡的染指和玷污。只有外在的人——個(gè)性和軀體,由于無知、思想錯(cuò)誤和違反自然規(guī)律而變得不完美。外在的人,原本也是完美的,但是由于人類如此的褻瀆和濫用,今天,它已經(jīng)與原型相去甚遠(yuǎn)。8Man'smajestyandnobilityaretakenforgranted,althoughhisfaultsandweaknessesareconstantlyparadedbeforeoureyes.Onlywhenbehaviordeviatesfromthenormaldoesitattractattention.Thegoodneighbor,theconscientiouscitizen,thekindfatherandfaithfulhusbandpassunnoticed.Butthemurderer,robberorwifebeaterissingledoutforublicity,becausesuchconductisunusual.8人們想當(dāng)然地認(rèn)為人類是偉大和高尚的,盡管他的過錯(cuò)和弱點(diǎn)不斷地暴露在我們面前。只有當(dāng)人類行為偏離常規(guī)時(shí)才會(huì)引起人們的注意。人們對(duì)好鄰居、良民、慈父和貞夫視而不見,但殺人犯、搶劫犯或毆打妻子的人卻成為公眾矚目的焦點(diǎn)。因?yàn)檫@些行為非同尋常。9Man'sinherentgoodness,moreover,isrevealedbyhiscountlessactsofheroism,unselfishnessandsacrifice.Dailyonereadsofmensavingothersattheperiloftheirownlives.Oneplungesintothesurfandrescuesaswimmerfromdrowning;anotherdashesintoaburninghouseandcarriesastrangertosafety;otherssnatchachildfromthewheelsofdeath;manygivetheirbloodsothatothersmaylive.Countlessunnamedandunrecordedmenhavegiventheirlivesfortheirfellowmen,notonlyonthebattlefrontbutonthehome-frontaswell.9人類固有的優(yōu)點(diǎn)還體現(xiàn)在不計(jì)其數(shù)的英雄主義行為、充滿無私和犧牲精神的舉動(dòng)上,每天我們都會(huì)讀到人們冒著生命危險(xiǎn)挽救他人生命的事跡:有人躍入水中拯救溺水的泳者;有人沖進(jìn)火場(chǎng)將陌生人帶出險(xiǎn)境;有人從死亡的車輪下救出孩子;許多人獻(xiàn)出鮮血使他人生命得以延續(xù)。數(shù)不勝數(shù)的不知姓名、不被記載的人們,不僅在戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)上,而且還在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的大后方,為了他們的同胞獻(xiàn)出了生命。10Humannaturedoesnotandcannotchangebutunfoldsitsinherentpattern.Manhasanatureanditslawscanbeknown.Wecanonlyendeavortounderstandmanasheis.10人性不會(huì)也不能改變,它只展現(xiàn)它固有的模式。它有天性而且這種天性的規(guī)律是可知的。我們只能盡力去了解人類的真實(shí)面貌。UnitEightIt'salmostacommonsensethatwearingaseatbeltcankeeppassengersfrombeinginjuredorbeingkilledinacaraccident.ButrecentresearchdonebyJohnAdamsshowsmorecomplicatedstatistics.Morecaraccidentsarecausedbytherecklessdriverswhowearseatbelts.THEHIDDENDANGEROFSEATBELTSDavidBjerklie安全帶可以避免乘客在車禍中受傷或死亡,這幾乎是常識(shí)。但是,約翰.亞當(dāng)斯最近所做的研究得出了更加復(fù)雜的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)。當(dāng)司機(jī)系著安全帶時(shí),他們開車無所顧忌,更多車禍因此而發(fā)生。座椅安全帶的隱患大衛(wèi)·布杰克里1Seatbeltsstilldecreaseourriskofdyinginanaccident,butthestatisticsarenotallblackandwhite.Infact,accordingtooneresearcher,seatbeltsmayactuallycausepeopletodrivemorerecklessly.1座椅安全帶固然能降低我們?cè)谲嚨溨兴劳龅奈kU(xiǎn),但從統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)看,情況并不是那么絕對(duì)。事實(shí)上,據(jù)一位研究者說,安全帶可能會(huì)使人們?cè)隈{車時(shí)更加肆無忌憚。2Ifthere'sonethingweknowaboutourriskyworld,it'sthatseatbeltssavelives.Andtheydo,ofcourse.Butreality,asusual,ismessierandmorecomplicatedthanthat.JohnAdams,riskexpertandemeritusprofessorofgeographyatUniversityCollegeLondon,wasanearlyskepticoftheseatbeltsafetymantra.Adamsfirstbegantolookatthenumbersmorethan25yearsago.Whathefoundwasthatcontrarytoconventionalwisdom,mandatingtheuseofseatbeltsin18countriesresultedineithernochangeoractuallyanetincreaseinroadaccidentdeaths.2對(duì)于這個(gè)有危險(xiǎn)的世界,如果有一件事我們還算了解,那就是座椅安全帶可以救命。當(dāng)然,它確實(shí)可以救命。但實(shí)際情況通常要更混亂、更復(fù)雜。倫敦大學(xué)學(xué)院的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)專家、地理學(xué)榮譽(yù)教授約翰·亞當(dāng)斯早就質(zhì)疑安全帶能保證駕車安全的信條。亞當(dāng)斯最早開始查看統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)字是早在25年前的事了。他的發(fā)現(xiàn)與人們的普遍看法恰恰相反——在18個(gè)強(qiáng)制使用安全帶的國(guó)家,要么交通事故死亡率根本沒有變化,要么實(shí)際上反而導(dǎo)致了死亡率的凈增長(zhǎng)。3Howcanthatbe?Adams'interpretationofthedatarestsonthenotionofriskcompensation,theideathatindividualstendtoadjusttheirbehaviorinresponsetowhattheyperceive;aschangesinthelevelofrisk.Imagine,explainsAdams,adrivernegotiatingacurveintheroad.Let'smakehimayoungmale.Heisgoingtobeinfluencedbyhisperceptionsofboththerisksandrewardsofdrivingacar.Theconsiderationscouldincludegettingtoworkormeetingamendfordinnerontime,impressingacompanionwithhisdrivingskills,bolsteringhisimageofhimselfasanaccomplisheddriver.Theycouldalsoincludehisconcernforhisownsafetyanddesiretolivetoaripeoldage,hisfeelingsofresponsibilityforatoddlerwithhiminacarseat,thecostofbanginguphisshinynewcarorlosinghislicense.3怎么會(huì)這樣?亞當(dāng)斯用風(fēng)險(xiǎn)補(bǔ)償?shù)母拍顏斫忉屵@些數(shù)據(jù)資料,這個(gè)概念就是:人們往往會(huì)根據(jù)他們意識(shí)到的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)程度的改變來相應(yīng)地調(diào)整自己的行為。亞當(dāng)斯解釋說,假設(shè)一位司機(jī)駕車途中要過一個(gè)窄彎道,這名司機(jī)是個(gè)男青年,那么他會(huì)受到自己對(duì)以下兩方面認(rèn)知的影響:駕車的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和駕車的回報(bào)。他所考慮的東西可能包括:能夠準(zhǔn)時(shí)上班或準(zhǔn)時(shí)趕赴朋友的飯局、讓同伴對(duì)他的駕車技術(shù)留下深刻印象、使自己作為熟練駕車手的形象更加鞏固。他還可能考慮到自身的安全問題、長(zhǎng)命百歲的愿望、對(duì)車上年幼乘客的責(zé)任感、撞毀自己的漂亮新車或駕駛證被沒收的代價(jià)。Norwillthesepossibleconcernsexistinavacuum.Hewillbetakingintoaccounttheweatherandtheconditionoftheroad,theamountoftrafficandthecapabilitiesofthecarheisdriving.Butcrucially,saysAdams,thisdriverwillalsobeadjustinghisbehaviorinresponsetowhatheperceivesarechangesinrisks.Ifheiswearingaseatbeltandhiscarhasfrontandsideairbagsandanti-skidbrakestoboot,hemayinturndriveabitmoredaringly.這些可能的擔(dān)心也不是孤立存在的。他還要考慮到天氣和路況、交通擁擠的程度和所駕車子的性能。但亞當(dāng)斯說,關(guān)鍵的是這個(gè)司機(jī)還將根據(jù)他對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)變化的判斷來調(diào)整自己的行為。如果他系上了安全帶,而他的車子帶有前、側(cè)氣囊和防滑剎車系統(tǒng),他駕起車來可能會(huì)更大膽。4Thepoint,stressesAdams,isthatdriverswhofeelsafemayactuallyincreasetheriskthattheyposetootherdrivers,bicyclists,pedestriansandtheirownpassengers(whileanaverageof80%ofdriversbuckleup,only68%oftheirrear-seatpassengersdo).Andriskcompensationishardlyconfinedtotheactofdrivingacar.Thinkofatrapezeartist,suggestsAdams,orarockclimberormotorcyclist.Addsomesafetyequipmenttotheequation-anet,ropeorhelmetrespectively-andthepersonmaytrymaneuversthatheorshewouldotherwiseconsiderfoolish.Inthecaseofseatbelts,insteadofasimple,straightforwardreductionindeaths,theendresultisactuallyamorecomplicatedredistributionofriskandfatalities.Forthesakeofargument,offersAdams,imaginehowitmightaffectthebehaviorofdriversifasharpstakeweremountedinthemiddleofthesteeringwheel?Orifthebumperwerepackedwithexplosives.Perverse,yes,butitcertainlyprovidesavividexampleofhowaperceptionofriskcouldmodifybehavior.4亞當(dāng)斯強(qiáng)調(diào)說,問題就在于自我感覺安全的司機(jī)們實(shí)際上對(duì)其他司機(jī)、騎自行車者、行人和自己車上的乘客來說是更大的危險(xiǎn)(平均80%的司機(jī)系安全帶,而同車后座的乘客只有68%系安全帶)。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)補(bǔ)償絕不僅限于駕車行為。亞當(dāng)斯說,類似的還有表演高空秋千的藝人、攀巖者或摩托車手。如果在他們的安全等式上增添某種安全裝置——比如說分別給他們一張救生網(wǎng)、一根保險(xiǎn)繩或一個(gè)頭盔——這個(gè)人可能就會(huì)試著做些平時(shí)認(rèn)為很愚蠢的技巧性表演。因此,安全帶并非簡(jiǎn)單、直截了當(dāng)?shù)販p少死亡人數(shù),而是對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和死亡事故進(jìn)行了更加復(fù)雜的再分配。為了說明其中的道理,亞當(dāng)斯提出人們可以想象一下,如果在方向盤中間安一個(gè)尖頭的木樁,司機(jī)開車時(shí)會(huì)受到怎樣的影響?或者在保險(xiǎn)杠上裝滿炸藥呢?這簡(jiǎn)直是喪心病狂,是的,不過這確實(shí)提供了一個(gè)生動(dòng)的例子,來說明人們?nèi)绾胃鶕?jù)對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的判斷來調(diào)整行為。5Ineverydaylife,riskisamovingtarget,notasetnumberasstatisticsmightsuggest.Inadditiontoexternalfactors,eachindividualhashisorherowninternalcomfortlevelwithrisk-taking.Somearedaringwhileothersarecautiousbynature.Andstillothersarefatalistswhomaybelievethatahigherpowerdevisesmortalityschedulesthatfixapredeterminedtimewhenournumberisup.Consequently,anysinglemeasurementassignedtotheriskofdrivingacarisboundtobeonlytheroughestsortofbenchmark.5日常生活中,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是不斷移動(dòng)的靶子,而并不像統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)那樣是個(gè)固定數(shù)字。除了外部因素外,每個(gè)人對(duì)于冒險(xiǎn)都有自己內(nèi)在的安全尺度。有些人天生大膽而有些人天生謹(jǐn)慎,還有些人是宿命論者,他們會(huì)認(rèn)為,有一種更強(qiáng)大的力量設(shè)計(jì)了死亡時(shí)間表,預(yù)先確定了我們的死期。因此,對(duì)駕車風(fēng)險(xiǎn)做任何單一的測(cè)算所得到的肯定只是最粗略的基準(zhǔn)數(shù)據(jù)。Adamscites,asanexamplethestatisticalfactthatayoungmanis100timesmorelikelytobeinvolvedinaseverecrashthanisamiddle-agedwoman.Similarly,someonedrivingat3:00a.m.Sundayismorethan100timesmorelikelytodiethansomeonedrivingat10:00a.m.Sunday.Someonewithapersonalitydisorderis10timesmorelikelytodie.Andlet'ssayhe'salsodrunk.TallyupAllthesefactorsandconsiderthemindependentlysaysAdams,andyoucouldarriveat.astatisticalpredictionthatadisturbed,drunkenyoungmandrivinginthemiddleofthenightis2.7milliontimesmorelikelytobeinvolvedinaseriousaccidentthanwouldasober,middle-agedwomandrivingtochurchsevenhourslater.亞當(dāng)斯引用了這樣的統(tǒng)計(jì)事實(shí)作例子:青年男子發(fā)生嚴(yán)重撞車事故的概率比中年婦女高100倍。同樣,在星期天凌晨3點(diǎn)鐘駕車的人比同一天上午10點(diǎn)鐘駕車的人死亡風(fēng)險(xiǎn)高出100多倍,有人格障礙的人比一般人死亡風(fēng)險(xiǎn)高10倍。亞當(dāng)斯說,假如這個(gè)人還喝醉了,匯總所有這些因素并分別加以考慮,就會(huì)得到一個(gè)具有統(tǒng)計(jì)性的預(yù)測(cè):一位心理失常又喝醉酒的青年男子在午夜駕車,7個(gè)小時(shí)后一位頭腦清醒的中年婦女駕車去教堂,前者發(fā)生嚴(yán)重交通事故的概率比后者高270萬倍。6Thebottomlineisthatriskdoesn'texistinavacuumandthatthereareahostoffactorsthatcomeintoplay,includingtherewardsofrisk,whethertheyarefinancial,physicaloremotional.Itisthisveryhumancontextwhichriskexists.Thatiskey,saysAdams,whotitledoneofhisrecentblogs:WhatKillsYouMatters-NotNumbers.Ourreactiontoriskverymuchdependsonthedegreetowhichitisvoluntary(scubadiving),unavoidable(publictransit)orimposed(airquality),thedegreetowhichwefeelweareincontrol(driving)oratthemercyofothers(planetravel),andthedegreetowhichthesourceofpossibledangerisbenign("doctor'sorders),indifferent(nature)ormalign,(murderandterrorism).Wemakedozensofriskcalculationsdaily,butyoucanbookodds-thatmostofthemaresoautomaticorvisceral-thatwebarelynoticethem.6問題的要點(diǎn)就在于風(fēng)險(xiǎn)并不是孤立存在的,它會(huì)受到許多因素的影響,包括承擔(dān)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)所帶來的種種回報(bào)——無論是財(cái)產(chǎn)方面的、身體方面的,還是情感方面的。這正是風(fēng)險(xiǎn)賴以存在的真實(shí)的人類社會(huì)。亞當(dāng)斯說,這才是問題的關(guān)鍵,正如他把近期的一篇博客題目定為《關(guān)鍵的是置人于死地的東西,而不是數(shù)字》。我們對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的反應(yīng)多半取決于它在多大程度上是自發(fā)的行為(如戴水肺潛水)、是不可避免的(如公共交通)、還是強(qiáng)加給我們的(如空氣質(zhì)量);取決于我們認(rèn)為在多大程度上是我們能控制的(如駕駛)或是由別人控制的(如乘飛機(jī));還取決于這種潛在危險(xiǎn)在多大程度上是出于好意(如醫(yī)生的指令)、無意的(如自然因素)或惡意的(如謀殺和恐怖活動(dòng))。我們每天要做幾十遍風(fēng)險(xiǎn)計(jì)算,但是可以確信的是,多數(shù)時(shí)候人們對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的計(jì)算自然而然或者說是出自本能,以至于我們幾乎注意不到我們?cè)谧鲇?jì)算。UnitNineTHEHOUSINGCRISISGOESSUBURBAN住房危機(jī)走向郊區(qū)邁克爾·格倫沃爾德在過去的五年里,弗吉尼亞州費(fèi)爾法克斯縣的住房?jī)r(jià)格增長(zhǎng)速度是家庭收入增長(zhǎng)速度的12倍.今天,該縣中等家庭不得不將其收入的54%用于購(gòu)買位于該縣的普通住房;在2000年,這個(gè)數(shù)字是26%。形勢(shì)如此嚴(yán)峻,以至于費(fèi)爾法克斯縣最近開始對(duì)年收入90,000美元的家庭提供住房補(bǔ)貼;很快,這個(gè)數(shù)字可能提高到110,000美元。1SeventyyearsafterPresidentFranklinD.RooseveltdeclaredthattheDepressionhadleftone-thirdoftheAmericanpeople"ill-housed,ill-clothedandill-nourished,"2Americansarewell-clothedandincreasinglyovernourished.Butthescarcityofaffordablehousingisadeepeningnationalcrisis,andnotjustforinner-cityfamiliesonwelfare.Theproblemhasclimbedtheincomeladderandmovedtothesuburbs,whereserviceworkerscramtheirfamiliesintoovercrowdedapartments,collegegraduateshavetocrashwiththeirparents,andfirefighters,policeofficersandteacherscan'taffordtoliveinthecommunitiestheyserve.1富蘭克林·羅斯福總統(tǒng)曾經(jīng)說經(jīng)濟(jì)大蕭條造成1/3的美國(guó)人住房簡(jiǎn)陋、衣衫襤褸、營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良,然而70年后的今天,美國(guó)人卻是穿著考究、營(yíng)養(yǎng)日益過剩。但是,廉價(jià)房稀缺是一場(chǎng)日益加深的民族危機(jī),而不僅僅是依靠福利為生的城市家庭的危機(jī)。這個(gè)問題已經(jīng)波及中產(chǎn)階級(jí),并向郊區(qū)蔓延,在那里服務(wù)工作者及其家屬擠在過于狹小的公寓里,大學(xué)畢業(yè)生不得不借宿在父母家,而消防隊(duì)員、警察和教師在他們所服務(wù)的社區(qū)也買不起房。2Homeownershipisnearanall-timehigh,butthegapisgrowingbetweentheOwnsandtheOwn-Nots—aswellastheOwnsandtheOwn-80-Miles-From-Work.One-thirdofAmericansnowspendatleast30%oftheirincomeonhousing,thefederaldefinitionofan"unaffordable"burden,andhalftheworkingpoorspendatleast50%oftheirincomeonrent,a"critical"burden.TherealestateboomofthepastdecadehasproducedwindfallsforAmericanswhoownedbeforeitbegan,butaffordablehousingisnowaseriousproblemformorelow-andmoderate-incomeAmericansthantaxes,SocialSecurity4orgasprices.2住房擁有率接近歷史最高位,但有房戶和無房戶之間的差距越來越大,有房戶和房子離工作單位80英里遠(yuǎn)的有房戶之間的差距也越來越大。現(xiàn)在,1/3的美國(guó)人花費(fèi)至少30%的收入用于住房,聯(lián)邦政府將這種情況定義為“無力支付”的負(fù)擔(dān),而有一半的窮打工仔花費(fèi)至少50%的收入用于租房,這種情況被稱為“極其嚴(yán)重”的負(fù)擔(dān)。在過去10年里,房地產(chǎn)迅猛發(fā)展,這使得在此之前就已經(jīng)購(gòu)置房產(chǎn)的美國(guó)人大賺特賺了一把,但現(xiàn)在廉價(jià)房對(duì)中、低收入的美國(guó)人來說,是一個(gè)比稅收、社會(huì)保險(xiǎn)、汽油價(jià)格更嚴(yán)重的問題。3Americausedtocarealotaboutaffordablehousing.Rooseveltsignedhousinglegislationin1934and1937,providingmortgages,governmentapartmentsandconstructionjobsforworkersdownontheirluck.In1949,Congress.setanofficialgoaljjf"adecenthomeandasuitablelivingenvironmentforeveryAmericanfamily,"andin1974,PresidentRichardM.Nixonbeganofferingsubsidizedrentvoucherstomillionsoflow-incometenantsinprivatehousing.Forhalfacentury,mosthousingdebatesinWashingtonrevolvedaroundhowmuchtoexpandfederalassistance.3美國(guó)曾經(jīng)非常關(guān)注廉價(jià)房問題。1934年和1937年,羅斯福簽署了住房立法,提供抵押貸款、政府公寓,并為那些窮困潦倒的工人提供建筑工作。1949年,國(guó)會(huì)樹立了官方目標(biāo)——“讓每一個(gè)美國(guó)家庭都能擁有一個(gè)體面的家和宜居環(huán)境,”而到了1974年,尼克松總統(tǒng)開始對(duì)數(shù)以百萬計(jì)的低收入租戶在私有住房方面提供租金補(bǔ)貼憑單。半個(gè)世紀(jì)以來,在華盛頓發(fā)生的大多數(shù)住房方面的辯論都圍繞著一個(gè)主題:即應(yīng)該在多大程度上擴(kuò)大聯(lián)邦政府的資助。4Butforthepasttwodecades,theonlynewfederalhousinginitiativehasbeenHOPEVI5,aClintonadministrationprogramthathasdemolished80,000unitsoftheworstpublichousingandbuiltmixed-incomedevelopmentsintheirplace.Theprogramhaseliminatedmostofthehigh-risehellholesthatgavepublichousingabadnameandhasrevivedsomeurbanneighborhoods.Butithasrazedmoresubsidizedapartmentsthanithasreplaced. 4但在過去20年中,唯一的聯(lián)邦住房新提案就是HOPEVI,也就是克林頓政府拆毀80,000單位的最差公共住房,重建混合收入寓所來取而代之。該計(jì)劃已經(jīng)拆除了大部分高度危險(xiǎn)的房子,它們?cè)构沧》柯暶墙?,并已重建了一些城市的社區(qū)。但是它更多的是把享有補(bǔ)貼的公寓房夷為平地而不是取而代之。5Overall,thenumberofhouseholdsreceivingfederalaidhasflatlinedsincetheearly1990s,despiteanexpandingpopulationandaballooningbudget.CongresshasrejectedmostofPresidentBush'sproposedcuts,buttherehasbeenvirtuallynodiscussionofincreases;affordable-housingadvocatesspendmostoftheirtimefightingtopreservethestatusquo. 5總的來說,自90年代初以來,接受聯(lián)邦援助的家庭數(shù)已經(jīng)降到最低,盡管人口不斷增加、預(yù)算不斷膨脹。美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)已經(jīng)拒絕了美國(guó)總統(tǒng)布什提出的大部分的削減計(jì)劃,但幾乎沒有討論過增加計(jì)劃;廉價(jià)房的倡導(dǎo)者花費(fèi)的大部分時(shí)間都被用于努力爭(zhēng)取保持現(xiàn)狀。6Andit'satoughstatusquo.Today,foreveryoneofthe4.5millionlow-incomefamiliesthatreceivefederalhousingassistance,therearethreeeligiblefamilieswithoutit.FairfaxCountyhas12,000familiesonawaitinglistfor4,000assistedapartments."It'sgoldenwhenyougetone—nobodywantstogiveitup,"saysConradEgan,chairmanoftheFairfaxhousingauthority.Itsoundsodd,butthevictimsoftoday'shousingcrisisarenotpeoplelivingin"theprojects",butpeoplewhoaren'teventhatlucky.6而現(xiàn)狀真是很艱難。今天,有450萬低收入家庭享受聯(lián)邦住房救助,還有3倍于此的家庭符合被救助資格,卻拿不到救助。費(fèi)爾法克斯縣有12,000戶家庭在排隊(duì)輪候4,000套救助公寓?!斑@太寶貴了,一旦擁有,沒有人愿意放棄?!辟M(fèi)爾法克斯住房委員會(huì)主席康拉德·艾根這樣說。這聽起來奇怪,但如今住房危機(jī)的受害者不是那些已經(jīng)享受“救助計(jì)劃”的人,而是那些沒那么幸運(yùn)去享受這個(gè)計(jì)劃的人。7Someliberals6dreamofextendingsubsidiestoalleligiblelow-incomefamilies,butthat$100billion-a-yearsolutionwasunrealisticevenbeforethebudgetdeficitballoonedagain.Soevensomehousingadvocatesnowsupporttimelimitsonmostfederalrentaid.Thetimelimitsincludedinwelfarereform10yearsagowerecontroversial,butstudiessuggestthey'vehelpedmotivaterecipientstogetoffthedole.Andunlikewelfare,housingaidisnotafederalentitlement,sotakingitawayfromonefamilyafterafewyearswouldprovideabreakforanequallydeservingfamily.7一些自由派人士夢(mèng)想著對(duì)所有合格的低收入家庭都給予補(bǔ)貼,但是這個(gè)每年要斥資上千億美元的解決辦法很不現(xiàn)實(shí),即便是在預(yù)算赤字再度膨脹之前也不現(xiàn)實(shí)。因此,即使一些曾經(jīng)主張住房政策的人,現(xiàn)在也支持對(duì)大多數(shù)聯(lián)邦租房救濟(jì)金實(shí)行時(shí)間限制。人們對(duì)10年前福利改革中所涉及的時(shí)限問題有爭(zhēng)議,但研究表明,這些時(shí)限有助于激勵(lì)受助人擺脫對(duì)福利的依賴。和福利不同的是,住房救濟(jì)金不是聯(lián)邦所賦予的權(quán)利,因此幾年后對(duì)一個(gè)家庭停止供給意味著給另一個(gè)同樣需要救濟(jì)的家庭一個(gè)喘息的機(jī)會(huì)。8"It'sano-brainer,"saysDavidSmith,anaffordable-housingadvocateinBoston."Youcan'tsustaintheinternalcontradictionofnolimits."8“這是顯而易見的事,”大衛(wèi)·史密斯——波士頓的一位廉價(jià)房的倡導(dǎo)者說,“你不能讓內(nèi)在矛盾無限地延續(xù)?!?Therootoftheproblemisthestrikingmismatchbetweenthedemandforandthesupplyofaffordablehousing—or,moreaccurately,affordablehousingnearjobs.Fifteenmillionfamiliesnowspendatleasthalftheirincomeonhousing,accordingtoHarvard'sJoint_CenterfOTHousingStudies:manyskimponhealthcare,childcareandfoodtodoso.Othersreducetheirrentsbyovercrowding,whichstudieslinktohighercrimerates,pooreracademicperformanceandpoorerhealth;LosAngelesalonehas620.000homeswithmorethanonepersonperroom.Otherworkersareenduringincreasinglylongcommutesfromlessexpensivecommunities,aphenomenonknownas"drivingtoqualify".9問題的根源是廉價(jià)房的供需,或者更準(zhǔn)確地說,工作地點(diǎn)附近的廉價(jià)房的供需之間極不協(xié)調(diào)。據(jù)哈佛大學(xué)住宅聯(lián)合研究中心提供的數(shù)據(jù),現(xiàn)在有1,500萬個(gè)家庭至少把他們一半的收入用于支付住房費(fèi)用;許多人為了住房甚至在醫(yī)療保健、照顧兒童和食品等方面節(jié)省開支。其他人為了減少租金,居住條件極為擁擠,研究表明,擁擠的居住條件與高犯罪率、學(xué)習(xí)成績(jī)差、以及健康狀況不佳緊密相關(guān);僅洛杉磯就有62萬戶家庭多人共居一室。其他工作者居住在較為便宜的社區(qū),忍受著越來越長(zhǎng)距離的交通往返,這種現(xiàn)象被稱為“駕駛以保生活質(zhì)量”。10Thiscreatesallkindsoflousyoutcomes—childrenwhodon'tgettoseetheirparents,workerswhocan'tmakeendsmeetwhengaspricessoar,exurbansprawl,roadscloggedwithlong-distancecommutersemittinggreenhousegases."Idon'tthinkwe'recreatingstrongcommunitiesbyforcingpeopleintotheircarsfourhoursaday,"saysCathyHudgins.chairwomanofthehousingcommitteefortheFairfaxCountyBoardofSupervisors.Affordablehousingalsohelpsmakecommunitiescompetitive;it'snotclearhowFairfaxcankeepcreatingjobsifworkerscan'taffordtolivethere.10這造成各種不良結(jié)果——孩子們看不到父母;當(dāng)汽油價(jià)格飆升、城市向外擴(kuò)張、道路上堵滿了長(zhǎng)途通勤的打工者、他們的汽車排放著溫室氣體,勞動(dòng)者根本就入不敷出。費(fèi)爾法克斯縣監(jiān)督委員會(huì)的會(huì)長(zhǎng)凱西·哈金斯說:“我認(rèn)為如果我們迫使人們平均每天四個(gè)小時(shí)呆在汽車?yán)?,我們就無法建立強(qiáng)大的社區(qū)?!绷畠r(jià)房也可以使社區(qū)具有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力;如果打工者沒錢住在那里,我們還真不知道費(fèi)爾法克斯縣怎能一直創(chuàng)造就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)。11Thebestthinglocalofficialscandotopromoteaffordablehousingistogetoutoftheway—stoprequiringone-acrelotsandtwo-cargarages,andstopblockinglow-incomeandhigh-densityprojects.11為促進(jìn)廉價(jià)房,地方官員最好不要擋在路上——不要要求一英畝最小面積和兩車位的車庫、不要阻止低收入和高密度的項(xiàng)目。12Washingtonpoliticians,ontheotherhand,havethefederalbudgetattheirdisposal.ButCongresshasn'tsupportednewconstructionsincetheLow-IncomeHousingTaxCreditof1986,whichcreatesnearly100,000unitsofaffordablehousingayear,enoughtoreplacehalftheunitsthataretorndownorconvertedtomarketrents.Bushproposedahome-ownershiptaxcreditduringhis2000and2004campaigns,butitturnedouttobetheraretaxcuthedidn'tpursue.AbillpendinginCongresswoulddivertapercentageofprofitsfromfederallycharteredinstitutionssuchasFannieMaetoanationalaffordable-housingtrustfund8,butitseemsstalled.Theonlyaffordabilityideaswithanytractionatthenationallevelarenotreallyhousingideas;forexample,onewaytomakehousingmoreaffordabletoworkerswouldbetoraisetheirincomes—throughhigherminimumwages,lowerpayrolltaxesoranexpandedEarnedIncomeTaxCredit.12另一方面,聯(lián)邦預(yù)算由華盛頓政界人士決定。但是,美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)自1986年施行低收入住房稅收抵免政策以來沒有再支持過新的建設(shè)項(xiàng)目,該政策每年造就近100,000套廉價(jià)住房,足以取代被拆除或被轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)槭袌?chǎng)化招租的那些住房總數(shù)的一半。布什在2000年和2004年的競(jìng)選中提出了房屋所有權(quán)稅收抵免政策,這是一項(xiàng)極好的政策,但是他最終竟然沒有實(shí)行。一項(xiàng)等待國(guó)會(huì)投票的法案可能會(huì)把一些聯(lián)邦特許機(jī)構(gòu)——如房利美——的利潤(rùn)按照一定的百分比轉(zhuǎn)移到國(guó)家廉價(jià)房信托基金名下,但這項(xiàng)法案似乎停滯不前。唯一的用國(guó)家力量促進(jìn)支付能力的辦法并不是有關(guān)住房的辦法;例如,有一個(gè)方法可以讓勞動(dòng)者更能夠負(fù)擔(dān)得起住房費(fèi)用,那就是提高他們的收入——通過提高最低工資、降低工資稅或擴(kuò)大收入稅收抵免等方式。13Thereisoneclearsolutiontotheaffordable-housingcrisis:arealestatecrash.It'stheonehousingissuethatattractsmediaattention—becauseitwouldhurttheOwns.Butwhileaneasingofpricescouldbedevastatingforlower-incomeOwnswithriskymortgages,itprobablywouldn'tbringhomeownershipwithinreachformanyOwn-Nots.Priceshavetoofartofall;in2000,two-thirdsofthehomesalesinFairfaxwerefor$250,000orless,butlastyear,fewerthanone-twentiethwere.Andevenamodestpriceslumpcouldtriggeraconstructionslowdownthatwouldmakeshortagesofaffordablehousingformoderate-incomefamiliesevenworse.13解決廉價(jià)房危機(jī)的一個(gè)明確辦法:房地產(chǎn)市場(chǎng)崩潰。這是一個(gè)能夠吸引媒體關(guān)注的住房問題——因?yàn)檫@會(huì)傷害有房戶。但是對(duì)于使用風(fēng)險(xiǎn)貸款的低收入房屋所有人來說放松價(jià)格可能是毀滅性的,另一方面對(duì)于無房者來說,它也不會(huì)帶來居者有其屋的結(jié)果。價(jià)格下降還有很大的空間;在2000年,費(fèi)爾法克斯2/3的房屋銷售價(jià)格不高于$250,000,但去年只有不到1/20的房屋以此價(jià)格出售。即便價(jià)格小幅下滑都可能引發(fā)建設(shè)減速,從而使中等收入家庭缺乏廉價(jià)房的局面變得更糟糕。14Eventually,politiciansmayrediscoverhousing—notasanurbanpovertyissue,butasamiddle-classquality-of-lifeissue,likegaspricesorhealthcare.HomeownershipisoftendescribedastheAmericandream,butthesedaysmanyworkerswouldsettleforadecentrentalthatwon'tbankrupttheirfamilies.14最終,政治家可能重新發(fā)現(xiàn)住房問題不是一個(gè)城市貧困問題,而是一個(gè)中產(chǎn)階級(jí)的生活質(zhì)量問題,正如燃油價(jià)格或醫(yī)療保健一樣。居者有其屋通常被稱為是美國(guó)夢(mèng),但如今許多勞動(dòng)者為了使他們的家人不至于破產(chǎn),寧愿租一所體面的房子居住。UnitTenACADEMYINTIMESOFCRISIS普林斯頓大學(xué)校長(zhǎng)在其任職演說中提到:與接受高等教育這項(xiàng)權(quán)利相伴的是各種義務(wù)。危機(jī)時(shí)代,大學(xué)該扮演的角色雪莉·M.泰夫曼1TodaytheacademyholdsahighlyprivilegedplaceinAmericansocietybecauseofaaboutthelong-standingnationalconsensusaboutthevalueofeducation.Oneofmypredecessors,PresidentHaroldDodds,saidinhisinauguraladdressin1933that"Nocountryspendsmoneyforeducation,publicorprivate,solavishlyasdoestheUnitedStates.Americanshaveanalmostchildlikefaithinwhatformaleducationcandoforthem."ThatfaithisbasedonaconvictionthatthevitalityoftheUnitedStates,itscreativeanddiverseculturallife,itsisnationalsecurityandtherobustnessofitsdemocraticinstitutionsowemuchtothequalityofinstitutionsofhighereducation.1今天,由于長(zhǎng)期以來美國(guó)人對(duì)教育價(jià)值的共識(shí),大學(xué)在美國(guó)社會(huì)中占有得天獨(dú)厚的地位。一位前任校長(zhǎng)哈羅德·多茲1933年在就職演說中曾提到,“沒有哪個(gè)國(guó)家像美國(guó)這樣,不論對(duì)公立教育還是私立教育的投入都是如此地慷慨大方。美國(guó)人民對(duì)正規(guī)教育所能起到的作用抱有一種近乎天真的信念?!边@一信念是在這樣一個(gè)深信不疑的基礎(chǔ)上確立的,即美國(guó)的活力、它富有創(chuàng)造性和多樣化的文化生活、它具有驚人獨(dú)創(chuàng)力的經(jīng)濟(jì)、它的國(guó)家安全以及它健全的民主制度——極大地依賴于其高等教育機(jī)構(gòu)的質(zhì)量。2Oursociety’sconfidenceinitsinstitutionsofhighereducationisexpressedthroughthegenerousinvestmentsofthefederalandstategovernmentinbasicandappliedresearch,investmentthatwiselycouplesupportforresearchwithsupportforgraduateeducation.Itisalsoexpressesthroughfederalandstateinvestmentsthatsubsidizethecostofhighereducationforthosewhocannotaffordtopay,investmentsbyprivatefoundationsandcharitieswhoseecollegesanduniversitiesasthebestroutesforachievingtheirstrategicgoals,andinvestmentsbyindividualsandbytheprivatesector,whoseeuniversitiesastheincubatorsoffuturehealthandprosperity.Inreturnforthisbroadsupport,societyrightfullyexpectscertainthingsfromus.Itexpectsthegenerationofnewideasandthediscoveryofnewknowledge,theexplorationofcomplexissuesinanopenandcollegialmannerandthepreparationofthenextgenerationofcitizensandleaders.Intimesoftrouble,itisespeciallyimportantthatweliveuptotheseexpectations.2我國(guó)社會(huì)對(duì)高等教育機(jī)構(gòu)的信心通過以下幾點(diǎn)表現(xiàn)出來:聯(lián)邦政府和州政府對(duì)基礎(chǔ)研究和應(yīng)用研究給予大量投資,這些投資明智地將對(duì)研究的支持與對(duì)研究生教育的支持結(jié)合起來;聯(lián)邦政府和州政府對(duì)無力負(fù)擔(dān)高等教育學(xué)費(fèi)的學(xué)生給予資助;一些私人基金會(huì)和慈善機(jī)構(gòu)給予投資,他們認(rèn)為高等院校是達(dá)成其戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)的最佳途徑;一些個(gè)人和私人部門給予投資,他們認(rèn)為高等院校是未來健康發(fā)展和富裕繁榮的孵化器。社會(huì)當(dāng)然期望我們能有所作為以回報(bào)這種廣泛的支持。社會(huì)期望我們產(chǎn)生新思想,開發(fā)新知識(shí),以一種開放和共同協(xié)作的方式探索復(fù)雜的問題,培養(yǎng)未來一代公民和領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者。當(dāng)處于困境的時(shí)候,我們不辜負(fù)這些期望就尤為重要。3Themedievalimageoftheuniversityasanivorytower,withscholarsturnedinwardinsolitarycontemplation,immunizedfromthecaresoftheday,isanimagethathasbeensupersededbythemodernuniversityconstructednotofivory,butofahighlyporousmaterial,onethatallowsfreediffusioninbothdirections.Theacademyisoftheworld,notapartfromit.Itsideals,craftedovermanygenerations,aremeanttosuffusethenationalconsciousness.Itsscholarsandteachersaremeanttomoveinandoutoftheacademyinpursuitofopportunitiestousetheirexpertiseinpublicservice,inpursuitofcreativeworkthatwillgiveusilluminationandinsightandinpursuitofwaystoturnlaboratorydiscoveriesintousefulthings.Ourstudentsengagetheworldwithastrongsenseofcivicresponsibility,andwhentheygraduatetheybecom
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