契約法和成文法Common Law and Statute Law

CommonLawandStatuteLawCommonLawandStatuteLawCommonlaw--rulesofbehaviouraccepted(公認(rèn)的)bysocietyonthebasisofestablished（已制定的）

customandpractices,

（風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣）asevidenced【證據(jù)】bydecisionsinthecourts【法院】.Statutelaw-legislation【立法】containedinprecisewrittenstatementsofrequirementsemanatingfromparliament【國(guó)會(huì)立法】.

CommonLaw–TheDoctrineofPrecedence【優(yōu)先主義】TheDOCTRINEOFPRECEDENCErequiresthataninferiorcourtalwaysfollowsthedecisionsofahighercourt.Thus,onceajudgmenthasbeenmadeinaparticularcase,thatdecisionwillapplyinanyfuturecaseswhichmatchtheparticularsofthefirst.

下級(jí)法院與上級(jí)法院{法的適用，遵循先例，推翻先例，避開(kāi)先例}Caseswhichsetprecedenceareinvariablydeterminedbythehighestcourtsinthelegalsystem,(primarilytheCOURTOFAPPEALORTHEHOUSEOFLORDS).

CommonLaw–TheDoctrineofPrecedenceTheeffectofthisdoctrineistoensureconsistentapplicationofthelawthroughoutallthecourtsintheland.

Thisallowsthelawtobecontinuallyrevisedandreinterpreted“inthelightofcurrentvaluesandexperiences.”【法的不斷完善，例子，遵循先例?！?/p>

CommonLaw–TheDoctrineofPrecedenceOneofthedrawbacksofcaselawisthat,despitethedoctrineofprecedence,theoutcomeofcases,remains,tosomeextent,uncertain.

Ifitcanbeshownthattheparticularsofacasearedifferentfromanythatprecedeit,thenthereis,effectivelynolawtobeapplied.

Thecourtmaybeguidedbytheprinciplesappliedinpreviousjudgmentsinsimilarcases,butisnotboundbythem.

StatuteLawThisiswrittenlaw,producedthroughtheparliamentaryprocess,andcontainedessentiallyinActsofParliament.

ThisformoflawsupersedesallotherformsoflawsinceParliamentissupremeintheland.

DelegatedLegislationNotallaspectsofstatutelawarecontainedintheactualActsofParliament.

ItisoftenthecasethatanActsetsoutthegeneralprinciplesandempowersthegovernmentorsomeotherofficialbodytoissuefurtherrequirementswhichprovidethedetail.

LegislationformedinthiswayisknownasDelegatedLegislation

andissetoutinSTATUTORYINSTRUMENTS.

DelegatedLegislationAlthough,becauseofthesupremacyofParliament,no-onecanchallengetheauthorityofanActofParliamentinthecourts,itispossibletoquestionthevalidityofdelegatedlegislationandotherdecisionstakenbybodiesunderpowersgrantedtothembyanActofParliament.

The

United

States

is

atoncea

very

new

nationa

very

old

nation既年輕又古老的國(guó)家it

is

constantly

being

renewed

by

the

addition

of

new

elements

of

population

and

of

new

States不斷有新的人口成分和新州的加入It

is

a

new

nationComparedwithmanyothercountries

與其他國(guó)家相比

It

isthe

oldest

of

the

"new"

nations

—the

first

one

to

be

made

out

ofan

Old

World

colony.

第一個(gè)從舊大陸殖民地脫胎而出的國(guó)家the

oldest

written

constitution

the

oldest

continuous

federal

systemthe

oldest

practice

of

self-governmentIt

is

oldThe

whole

of

its

history

belongs

in

the

period

since

the

invention

of

the

printing

press.美國(guó)歷史是印刷發(fā)明以后的歷史。for

events

such

as

those

that

are

lost

in

the

legendary

past

of

Italy

or

France

or

England

are

part

of

the

printed

record

of

the

United

States

那些在意大利、法國(guó)或英國(guó)過(guò)去的傳說(shuō)中湮沒(méi)的那些事件，是美國(guó)有文字記載歷史的一部分。The

whole

of

its

history

is

recordedAnd

the

American

record

Comprehensive

復(fù)雜Immense

繁多Record

of

the

colonial

era

殖民時(shí)代的記載Recordof

the

Nation

since

1776國(guó)家從1776年開(kāi)始的記載Recordof

the

present

fifty

States

當(dāng)前50個(gè)州的記載The

intricate

network

ofrelationships

between

States

andNation

各州與聯(lián)邦之間錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜關(guān)系的記載The

reports

of

the

United

States

Supreme

Court

fill

350

volumesThe

reports

of

some

States

are

almost

equally

voluminous.

聯(lián)邦最高法院判例匯編州法院判例匯編The

reader

who

wants

to

trace

the

history

of

law

in

America

is

confronted

with

over

5,000

stout

volumes

of

legal

cases.想要探索美國(guó)法律歷史的人面對(duì)的是5000多巨冊(cè)的法律案例。No

one

document,

no

handful

of

documents,

can

properly

be

said

to

reveal

the

character

of

a

people

or

of

their

government.

沒(méi)有哪一個(gè)或者少數(shù)幾個(gè)文件可以準(zhǔn)確地揭示一國(guó)人民或政府的特征。When

hundreds

and

thousands

of

documents

strike

a

consistent

note，over

more

than

a

hundred

years,

we

have

a

right

to

say

that

is

the

keynote.當(dāng)一百多年來(lái)成百上千的文件敲擊出始終如一的音調(diào)時(shí)，我們可以說(shuō)這就是基調(diào)。The

American

legal

system,

like

the

English,

is

methodologically

mainly

a

caselaw

system.

判例法Part

Two

Civillawlegalsystem大陸法系/羅馬法系Commonlawlegalsystem普通法系Statutorylaw法國(guó)和德國(guó)為代表，還有瑞士、意大利、奧地利、比利時(shí)、盧森堡、荷蘭、西班牙、葡萄牙、日本等Caselaw形成于英國(guó)，包括加拿大，澳大利亞，新西蘭，愛(ài)爾蘭，印度、巴基斯坦，馬來(lái)西亞和新加坡，香港地區(qū)也采用英美法

Most

fields

of

private

law

still

consist

primarily

of

case

law

and

the

extensive

and

steadily

growing

statutory

continues

to

be

subject

to

binding

interpretation

through

case

law.

私法的大多數(shù)領(lǐng)域主要包括判例法，以及廣泛的不斷增加的成文法，這些成文法繼續(xù)通過(guò)判例法受制于有約束力的法律解釋。The

common

law

is

historically

the

common

general

law

——

with

supremacy

over

local

law

——which

was

decreed

by

the

itinerant

judges

of

the

English

royal

court.

普通法在歷史上是普通綜合法，由英國(guó)皇家法院的巡回法官頒布的普通綜合法地位高于地方法。

enforcement強(qiáng)制執(zhí)行；

claim請(qǐng)求；

action訴訟行為；

writ法院令狀；

classicalRomanlaw古羅馬法衡平法由英國(guó)衡平法法院的大法官在處理專門的申訴案件時(shí)，為避免過(guò)分重視令狀和程序方面的技術(shù)性問(wèn)題，而集中考慮案情的理?yè)?jù)得失，最終發(fā)展出有別于普通法的法律規(guī)范，就是衡平法?！癊quity”——doing

equity公平——行為公平deciding

ex

aequo

et

bono決定公平且善良（拉丁語(yǔ)）was

first

granted

by

the

King,

and

later

by

his

Chancellor

as

"keeper

of

the

King's

conscience",

toaffordreliefinhardshipcases.首先由國(guó)王，以后由作為“國(guó)王良知守護(hù)人”的大法官作出，以便對(duì)難以解決的案例提供救濟(jì)。In

the

fifteenth

century,

however,

equity

law

and

equity

case

law

developed

into

an

independent

legal

system

and

judiciary

(Court

of

chancery)which

competed

with

the

ordinary

common

law

courts.

15世紀(jì)，衡平法和衡平判例法發(fā)展成獨(dú)立的法律制度和司法制度（大法官法庭），大法官法庭與普通法法庭并列存在。普通法衡平法普通法專指英國(guó)在11世紀(jì)后由法官通過(guò)判決形式逐漸形成的適用于全英格蘭的一種判例法。而衡平法是指英國(guó)在14世紀(jì)后對(duì)普通法的修正和補(bǔ)充而出現(xiàn)的一種判例法。Its

rules

and

maxims

became

fixed

and,

to

a

degree,

inflexible

as

in

any

legal

system.

衡平法的規(guī)則和原則逐漸確定，與任何法律制度一樣，具有一定程度的固定性。equity

lawrelief

in

the

form

of

specific

performance

特殊履行的救濟(jì)方式the

injunction禁令（臨時(shí)或最終的采取或不采取某種行為的命令）the

development

of

so

calledmaxims

of

equity

law形成所謂的衡平法座右銘

Special

characteristics

of

equity

law：However,

equitable

relief

regularly

will

lie

only

when

the

common

law

relief

isinadequate.

不過(guò)，只有當(dāng)普通法救濟(jì)不充分時(shí)，才適用衡平救濟(jì)。For

instance,

specific

performance

for

the

purchase

of

real

propertywill

be

granted

because

common

law

damages

are

deemed

to

be

inadequate

since

they

cannot

compensate

the

buyerin

view

of

the

uniqueness

attributed

toreal

property.

例如，對(duì)購(gòu)買不動(dòng)產(chǎn)提供特殊履行的救濟(jì)，因?yàn)槠胀ǚǖ馁r償被認(rèn)為不充分，由于不動(dòng)產(chǎn)具有特殊性，普通法的賠償無(wú)法補(bǔ)償買方。As

the

common

law,

equity

law

became

part

of

American

law

either

through

judicial

acceptance司法接受

or

through

express

statutory

provision明確的成文法條款

Today,

both

legal

systems

have

been

merged

in

many

American

jurisdictions

普通法

衡平法there

is

only

one

form

of

civil

suit

in

these

jurisdictions

as

well

asin

federal

practice.

在美國(guó)司法管轄區(qū)和聯(lián)邦實(shí)踐中只有一套民事訴訟形式美國(guó)紐約州立法機(jī)構(gòu)于1848年通過(guò)了由戴維·菲爾德起草的《菲爾德民事程序法典》，稍后更成立了一個(gè)“法典化委員會(huì)”來(lái)“將紐約州的全部法律簡(jiǎn)化為成文的、系統(tǒng)化的法典”。Only

few

States

continue

to

maintain

a

separate

chancery

court.

獨(dú)立大法官法庭Referencetothehistoricaldevelopmentisimportant

參考?xì)v史發(fā)展非常重要Itexplainstheoriginandsignificanceofmanycontemporarylegalconceptsthe

division

of

title

in

the

law

of

property財(cái)產(chǎn)法上的所有權(quán)分割

it

is

still

relevant

for

the

decision

of

such

questionsReferencetothehistoricaldevelopmentisimportant

參考?xì)v史發(fā)展非常重要

a

right

to

a

trial

by

jury

陪審團(tuán)的審判權(quán)“ordinary”

common

law

relief

of

damages

普通法規(guī)定的賠償金救濟(jì)“extraordinary”

equity

remedy

of

specific

performance

衡平法規(guī)定的特定履行救濟(jì)"Case

law"

describes

the

entire

body

of

judge

made

law

and

today

includes

common

law

and

equity

precedents.

“判例法”指所有的法官定法，目前既包括普通法，也包括衡平法先例。

In

imprecise

and

confusing

usage

the

terms

"common

law"

and

"case

law"

are

often

used

synonymously,

with

the

term

“common

law”

in

thisusage

connoting

judge-made

law

in

general

as

contrasted

with

statutory

law.

普通法與判例法混用，被用作同義詞，是指“法官定法”。是與成文法相對(duì)的概念。"Case

law"

：always

connotes

judge

made

law判例法總是指法官定法"common

law"

：either

the

judge

made

law

in

common

law

subject

matters

or,

more

extensively,

all

judge-made

law.普通法既包括普通法意義上的法官定法，又包括更廣義的所有的法官定法重點(diǎn)詞匯United

States

Supreme

CourtCommonlawlegalsystemCivillawlegalsystemCaselawStatutorylawclassical

Roman

lawprivate

lawbindinginterpretationitinerant

judges

English

royal

courtEnforcement，claim，action，writequity

lawequitycase

lawspecific

performance

injunctionequitable

reliefcommon

law

reliefcommon

law

damagescivil

suitJurisdictions

titletrial

by

juryjudge-made

law

CivilLawandCriminalLaw.CriminalLawCriminallawisconcernedwithoffencesagainstsocietygenerally.Crimesareactionswhichviolatethebasicrulesandprinciplesbywhichsocietylives.Theaimofacriminalprosecutionistopunishtheoffenderwithfinancialpenaltiesorimprisonment.

CriminalLaw–BurdenofProofAnimportantpointwhichdistinguishescriminalprosecutionsfromcivilcasesisthattheBURDENOFPROOF-themeansofdemonstratingthattheoffencehas,indeed,beencommitted-hastobe"BeyondReasonableDoubt".CivilLawCivillawisconcernedwiththerightsanddutiesofindividuals(andorganisations)towardseachother.ViolationoftheseestablishedrightsanddutiesareknownasTORTS

(legalwrongs).Civilcasescompriseanactionbroughtbyonepersonagainstanotherinordertoseekrestitutionforsomeformofwrong-doing.

CivilLaw–BurdenofProofTheBURDENOFPROOFincivilcasesisdifferenttothatappliedtodeterminetheoutcomeincriminalcases.Herethecasemaybedecided"onthebalanceofprobabilities".