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1、chapter three,grammatical analysis,translation consists of a procedure comprising three stages: (1) analysis, in which the surface structure i.e., the message as given in language a is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words,

2、 (2) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind,of the translator from language a to language b, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. this approach may be diagra

3、mmed as in the following figure,a (source) b(receptor) (analysis) (restructuring) x-(transfer)-y,as indicated above, there are three major steps in analysis: (i) determining the meaningful relationships between the words and combinations of words, (2) the referential meaning of the words and special

4、 combinations of words (the idioms), and (3) the connotative meaning, i.e., how the users of the,language react, whether positively or negatively, to the words and combinations of them. in this chapter we shall be dealing only with the analysis of the meaningful relationship between words on a gramm

5、atical level,grammar has meaning,grammar has meaning, for the grammatical markers, such as twas, did, were, -s, all provide the necessary clues. even a comparison of john hit bill and bill hit john should convince us that grammar has some meaning, for it is the first word which performs the action o

6、f the second word, and,grammar has meaning,the third word identifies the goal of the action specified by the second word. this meaningfulness of grammar can also be illustrated by such a contrasting pair as naturally he did it and he did it naturally, in which naturally has two quite different meani

7、ngs because it is used in two quite different grammatical,grammar has meaning,constructions. even the combinations did you go and you did go can be uttered with the same intonational pattern, but the grammatical differences of order provide quite different meanings,the same grammatical construction

8、may have many different meanings,the fact that what is generally regarded as the same grammatical construction may represent a number of different relationships, and thus be said to have many different meanings, is no better illustrated than by the grammatical construction consisting of two nouns or

9、 pronouns connected by of.(the structure “a of b”,the same grammatical construction may have many different meanings,the will of god - god wills the foundation of the world -creating the world (b is the goal of a) the god of peace - god who causes or produces peace (a causes b,the same grammatical c

10、onstruction may have many different meanings,the holy spirit of promise - god promises the holy spirit a (holy spirit)is the goal of b(promise) we are forced to the conclusion that the construction noun + of+ noun can mean many different things, depending on what nouns are,the same grammatical const

11、ruction may have many different meanings,involved and what meanings we assign to them. in other words, this construction means not one relation, but many: it is ambiguous. our efforts must therefore be aimed at discovering and then stating unambiguously exactly what the relation is in each case,word

12、 category,we have, at one time or another, already made use of the terms object, event, abstract, and relation. it becomes crucial at this point to explain just what we mean by these terms. in the first place, they refer to basic semantic categories, in contrast with the more familiar terms noun, ve

13、rb, adjective, preposition,word category,etc., which refer to grammatical classes. second, these four categories include exhaustively all the semantic subcategories of all languages, even though various languages have quite different sets of grammatical classes; in other words, they are universal. t

14、his means that the entire universe of,word category,experience is divided among these four categories: (1) object refers to those semantic classes which designate things or entities which normally participate in events, e.g,word category,house, dog, man, sun, stick, water, spirit, etc. (2) event is

15、the semantic class which designates actions, processes, happenings, e.g., run jump, kill, speak, shine, appear, grow, die. (3) abstract refers to the semantic class of expressions which have as their only referents the qualities, quantities, and degrees of objects, events, and other abstracts,word c

16、ategory,for example, red is nothing in and of itself; it is only a quality inherent in certain objects, e.g., red hat, red binding, red pace. from these objects, the quality red is abstracted and named as if it had separate existence. similarly, quickly is a quality of certain events, such as run qu

17、ickly, but it can be conceptually,word category,abstracted and named. abstracts of quantity include two and twice, many, often, several, etc. the abstracts which serve to mark the degree of other abstracts, e.g., too and very, belong in this general subclass. (4) relations are the expressions of the

18、 meaningful connections between the other kinds of terms,word category,often they are expressed by particles (in english many are prepositions and conjunctions); some languages make extensive use of affixes, such as case endings, for similar purposes; and many languages, including english, use the o

19、rder of parts extensively to signify meaningful relations, e.g., the,word category,subject and the predicate in john ate the peanut. finally, some languages use special verbs such as be and have (in some of their uses only) to express relations, e.g., joint is in the house, john is a boy, john has a

20、 brother (but not in he that cometh to god must believe that he is, where be is a verb of existence,word category,it is important to realize that there is a kind of fit between these semantic categories and certain grammatical classes. for instance, objects are most typically expressed by nouns or p

21、ronouns, events by verbs, and abstracts by adjectives and adverbs,word category,how a word is to be understood, that is, what category it will be assigned to, depends entirely upon each particular context. for example, in the sentence he picked up a stone, stone represents an object; in they will st

22、one him, it functions as an event; and in he was stone deaf, it serves as an abstract,definition of kernel,definition of kernel: now if we examine carefully what we have done in order to state the relationships between words in ways that are the clearest and least ambiguous, we soon discover that we

23、 have simply recast the expressions so that events are expressed as verbs, objects as nouns, abstracts (quantities and qualities) as adjectives or adverbs. the only other terms are relational, i.e., the prepositions and conjunctions,definition of kernel,these restructured expressions are basically w

24、hat many linguists call kernels; that is to say, they are the basic structural elements out of which the language builds its elaborate surface structures,definition of kernel,from the standpoint of the translator, however, what is even more important than the existence of kernels in all languages is

25、 the fact that languages agree far more on the level of the kernels than on the level of the more elaborate structures. this means that if one can reduce grammatical structures to the kernel level, they can be transferred more readily and with a minimum of distortion,kernel sentences,the actual kern

26、el expressions in english from which the more elaborate grammatical structures can be constructed consist of the following illustrative types: 1. john ran quickly. 2. john hit bill. 3. john gave bill a ball,kernel sentences,4. john is in the house. 5. john is sick. 6. john is a boy. 7. john is my fa

27、ther,words with complex structures,as has been noted in the previous analysis of the of phrases in english, some words have complex semantic structures. for example servant and lord,words with complex structures,some phrases may seem quite similar in structure, but because of terms having complex st

28、ructures, the relationships between the parts turn out to be quite different. the phrases our beloved ruler, his old servant, and three good bakers would all seem to be quite similar in structure, but they actually go back to quite different kernels,the relationship of surface structure to kernels,o

29、ne of the most effective ways to determine the underlying relationships between elements in a phrase is to go beneath the surface structure, by the process of back-transformation, and to determine what is the kernel from which the surface structure is derived. this provides the clearest and most,the

30、 relationship of surface structure to kernels,unambiguous expression of the relationship. but to do this successfully, it is important to bear in mind constantly the types of kernels to which such structures may be related. for example,the relationship of surface structure to kernels,phrases with of

31、,the will of god“ god wills 2. the foundation of the world“ (god) creates the world 3. the holy spirit of promise“ (god) promised the holy spirit,kernels in english,1. john ran (quickly) 2. john hit bill 3. john gave bill a ball,the relationship of surface structure to kernels,phrases with of,4. the

32、 word of truth“ the word is true 5. the riches of his grace“ he shows grace richly 6. jesus of nazareth“ jesus comes from nazareth 7. the lake of galilee“ the lake is in galilee,kernels in english,4. john is in the house 5. john is sick 6. john is a boy 7. john is my father,determining the function

33、of the elements in a phrase, and hence their relationship to the other elements, can only be done by a careful examination of the context. this involves not merely the immediate context but also the wider context of the entire communication,back-transformation as a type of paraphrase,back-transforma

34、tion of a surface structure to the underlying kernels may be regarded as a form of paraphrase. the word paraphrase has sometimes been used to mean a quite loose and inaccurate translation, in which the translator has injected uncontrolled subjective judgments and thus biased the result,back-transfor

35、mation as a type of paraphrase,paraphrase, as we are using it at this point in referring to back-transformation, is a technical term from linguistics and related disciplines, and is characterized by three specific features: (1) it is intralingual rather than interlingual, i.e., it is another way of

36、saying the same thing in the same language; (2) it is rigorous, in that there are no,back-transformation as a type of paraphrase,changes in the semantic components: no additions, no deletions, no skewing of relationships, only a different marking of the same relations between the same elements; (3)

37、specifically as it relates to back-transformation, it is aimed at restatement at a particular level, that of the kernels,back-transformation as a type of paraphrase,it must be emphasized, however, that the kernel expressions themselves are not to be translated literally. such back-transformations ar

38、e not to be used as a model for translation, nor are they to be carried over wholesale into any translation into a receptor language. they are only the basis for transfer into the receptor language, since,back-transformation as a type of paraphrase,they provide not only the clearest and least ambigu

39、ous statements of the relationships but also constitute forms which correspond most closely with those expressions likely to occur in receptor languages,back-transformation as a type of paraphrase,in this process of back-transformation it would be very easy for the translator to lose sight of the su

40、btle stylistic features of the source-language text were it not that in the analysis of the connotative meanings of words and combinations of words, he returns to study those formal features of the source-language text which are so essential to the,back-transformation as a type of paraphrase,communication of its message. it is at this point that one picks up any important elements in the style which may have been overlooked in the processes of back-transformation,d