獨立寫作2正文段落擴展PPT

1、托福獨立寫作正文段落擴展正文段落擴展今日內(nèi)容全班：2:00-4:30 p.m. 1）托福獨立寫作正文段落概述2）列舉法段落擴展3）分類法段落擴展4）限時段落寫作練習(xí)（10 minutes）單獨學(xué)員：4:35-4:50 p.m. 托福基礎(chǔ)寫作一補課目標(biāo)1）了解英語段落的典型結(jié)構(gòu)2 2）按照某種邏輯順序?qū)⒅黝}句擴展成段落）按照某種邏輯順序?qū)⒅黝}句擴展成段落3 3）措辭和句法富有亮點）措辭和句法富有亮點段落主題句段落主題句主題句解釋主題句解釋論證句論證句言簡意賅，高言簡意賅，高度概括度概括主題句更清晰主題句更清晰而通俗的解釋而通俗的解釋根據(jù)主題句的根據(jù)主題句的特點，選擇某特點，選擇某種邏輯思路進種邏

2、輯思路進行擴展行擴展好段落的特征好段落的特征A typical example:A typical example:Topic: Advantages of getting a good educationTopic: Advantages of getting a good education(5 minutes of free writing)Finding its merits Getting a good education has many advantages. First, a good education means personal enrichment. A well-ed

3、ucated person is more knowledgeable and civilized. His life is also more meaningful. Second, with a good educational background, one has more opportunities to find a better job. Finally, armed with what education offers, one is likely to make a greater contribution to society and play a role in help

4、ing society to advance more rapidly. Logic Map of the Paragraph主題句（段落只統(tǒng)帥）：getting a good education advantages. 論證句1（統(tǒng)帥帳下大將1）：personal enrichment 論證句2（統(tǒng)帥帳下大將2）：personal enrichment論證句3（統(tǒng)帥帳下大將3）：greater contribution to societyPurpose Topic SentenceSupporting Sentences 一、段落的統(tǒng)一性一個段落應(yīng)該只說明一個問題，或一個問題的某一個段落應(yīng)

5、該只說明一個問題，或一個問題的某一方面；應(yīng)該只敘述一件事情，一方面；應(yīng)該只敘述一件事情， 或一件事情的某或一件事情的某一個階段。一個階段。也就是說，一個段落內(nèi)的各個句子必須從屬于一也就是說，一個段落內(nèi)的各個句子必須從屬于一個中心，任何游離于中心思想以外的句子都是不個中心，任何游離于中心思想以外的句子都是不可取的?？扇〉摹?一個好的段落應(yīng)該具有統(tǒng)一性。統(tǒng)一性就是一個中心一個好的段落應(yīng)該具有統(tǒng)一性。統(tǒng)一性就是一個中心思想統(tǒng)領(lǐng)整個段落。每個細(xì)節(jié)都應(yīng)支持主題句，不應(yīng)思想統(tǒng)領(lǐng)整個段落。每個細(xì)節(jié)都應(yīng)支持主題句，不應(yīng)有無關(guān)的細(xì)節(jié)。為了支持主題，要盡可能多地提供細(xì)有無關(guān)的細(xì)節(jié)。為了支持主題，要盡可能多地提供細(xì)

6、節(jié)，但又要避免濫用細(xì)節(jié)。節(jié)，但又要避免濫用細(xì)節(jié)。下圖是一個有統(tǒng)一性的段落的結(jié)構(gòu)圖下圖是一個有統(tǒng)一性的段落的結(jié)構(gòu)圖。主題句主題句(topic sentence） _Supporting Sentence 1 _ Supporting Sentence 2 _ Supporting Sentence 3 _ Supporting Sentence 4例文：例文：Millions of years ago, Australia was linked to Asia by a land bridge. Then an earthquake caused the land bridge to sink.

7、 The sea rushed in, and Australia became an island. Later, this island became a British colony. Many animals that once wandered back and forth across the land bridge were left in Australia. And kangaroos were among them. Though they were killed off by large animals in other places, they were about t

8、o survive in Australia.這一段講的是遠(yuǎn)古時期的澳大利亞，當(dāng)時連人類都沒有，但然這一段講的是遠(yuǎn)古時期的澳大利亞，當(dāng)時連人類都沒有，但然不必提它后來淪為英國的殖民地的事了。此句應(yīng)刪掉。不必提它后來淪為英國的殖民地的事了。此句應(yīng)刪掉。how to write the topic sentenceThree points: (1)a topic sentence must be a complete sentence, rather than a sentence fragment.(2) a topic sentence comes in two parts, topic wo

9、rdstopic words (indicating object to be discussed) and expression of thesisexpression of thesis (indicating the particular aspect of the thesis). E.g. The Women Movement has had several effects on the English language.(3)a topic sentence can be neither too general nor too specific. how to write the

10、topic sentence Position of the topic sentence: Topic sentence can be put in the beginning.二、段落的完整性一個段落的主題思想靠發(fā)展句來實現(xiàn)，如果只有一個段落的主題思想靠發(fā)展句來實現(xiàn)，如果只有主題句而沒有發(fā)展句來進一步交待和充實，就不主題句而沒有發(fā)展句來進一步交待和充實，就不能構(gòu)成一個完整的段落。能構(gòu)成一個完整的段落。 In my English study, I have many difficulties. My first difficulty is that my vocabulary is not

11、 large. The second difficulty I have is that I can not write well. The third difficulty is that my listening comprehension is not good enough. Now I have a plan to study English well.主題句：主題句：I have many difficulties. 發(fā)展句：具體說明困難發(fā)展句：具體說明困難 My first difficulty; The second difficulty ; The third difficu

12、lty .結(jié)尾句：結(jié)尾句： Now I have a plan 篇章結(jié)構(gòu)：分析：本段落看似完整，有頭有尾。但由于缺少實質(zhì)內(nèi)容即對學(xué)英語的困難的原因的分析，文章顯得空洞無物；此外，結(jié)尾句講到了plan,具體內(nèi)容有沒有交待，給人留下話好像沒說完的感覺。修改如下：三、段落的連貫性連貫性包括連貫性包括意連意連內(nèi)在的邏輯型；和內(nèi)在的邏輯型；和形連形連使使用過渡詞語、過渡句等方式。兩者常常不可分用過渡詞語、過渡句等方式。兩者常常不可分割。只有形連而沒有意連，句子之間沒有內(nèi)在割。只有形連而沒有意連，句子之間沒有內(nèi)在的有機聯(lián)系；反之，只有意連而沒有形連，有的有機聯(lián)系；反之，只有意連而沒有形連，有時行文就不夠流

13、暢。時行文就不夠流暢。如何取得連貫性的建議如何取得連貫性的建議1）使用同一時態(tài)）使用同一時態(tài)如果隨意而毫無理由地改變時態(tài)，那么不管作如果隨意而毫無理由地改變時態(tài)，那么不管作者連句的技巧多么高超，段落也不可能取得連者連句的技巧多么高超，段落也不可能取得連貫性。在寫作時，可以使用現(xiàn)在時或過去時。貫性。在寫作時，可以使用現(xiàn)在時或過去時。選用哪一種取決于作者處理材料的方式。選用哪一種取決于作者處理材料的方式。2)使用某種邏輯順序使用某種邏輯順序常用的邏輯順序有：常用的邏輯順序有： 1）時間順序）時間順序2）空間順序）空間順序3）重要性順序）重要性順序4）熟悉度順序）熟悉度順序3) 使用連接成分使用連接

14、成分使用某些連接詞和短語，重復(fù)某些關(guān)鍵詞，可使用某些連接詞和短語，重復(fù)某些關(guān)鍵詞，可以大大增加段落的連貫性。某些以大大增加段落的連貫性。某些連接詞連接詞、短語短語和和關(guān)鍵詞關(guān)鍵詞可以起粘著物的作用，把各部分連接可以起粘著物的作用，把各部分連接起來，使句子間的關(guān)系更加清楚。起來，使句子間的關(guān)系更加清楚。連接成分主要有以下三種：連接成分主要有以下三種：a連接詞語b代詞: 代詞用于提醒讀者注意其先行詞，以此把有關(guān)的部分連接起來。c重復(fù)關(guān)鍵詞語示范段落示范段落 Until recently daydreaming was viewed as a waste of time Or it was cons

15、idered an unhealthy escape from real life and its duties But now some people are taking a fresh look at daydreaming And it may be that more people are suffering from a lack of daydreaming than are suffering from too much of it連接詞連接詞連接詞連接詞段落擴展通用模式四步法四步法第一步：段落主題句/論據(jù)（言簡意賅）第二步：主題句擴展解釋（成熟嚴(yán)密）第三步：邏輯擴展（如舉例）

16、（泛/精：理論，數(shù)據(jù)，常識，名人經(jīng)歷、個人軼事）第四步：總結(jié)（來自舉例，呼應(yīng)首句）舉例1Topic: Nowadays, people put too much emphasis on personal appearance and fashion. Theme: Disagree (it has benefits) 1 1 To begin with, having good appearance can be valuable to an individual when he is looking for a job. 22 Many times, the way that a perso

17、n looks and dresses can help him get hired. After all, an interviewers first impression is often based upon a persons looks. So, if an individual ignores his appearance and fashion, he might not be successful during the interview process. 33 My older brother had an experience just like this. A few m

18、onths after he got his current job, his boss told my brother that he had been competing against a women for the job. However, because my brother looked more professional, his boss decided to hire him, so my brother got the job. 44 Taking special care of ones appearance can certainly help ones career

19、. 11 Next, if a person emphasizes his appearance, he can improve his self-esteem. 22 Many people suffer from low esteem and a lack of self-confidence. However, people who have good bodies and wear fashionable clothes often feel better about themselves. Their appearance actually gives them more confi

20、dence. 33 Again, my older brother is an excellent example. He was always overweight and very shy in middle school. He also had few friends and was not very popular. However, he started paying more attention to his shell and almost immediately became a more confident, outgoing person. This change mad

21、e him more popular at school too, so he started feeling better about himself. 44 It seems clear to me that people are happier when they take care of their appearance and are confident in how they work. 舉例2Topic: It is better to take a trip by oneself than to take a group tour with guidance. Theme: T

22、aking a group tour 1 1 First, group tours plan travelers entire itineraries. 22 Because their trip has already been arranged, people do not have to worry about where they are going or how they are getting there. They can simply relax, enjoy their trip, and not get stressed out about anything. 33 For

23、 example, my family once took a package tour to China. The travel agency arranged everything. It took care of the hotel reservations, transportation, and sightseeing. My family did not have to worry about anything. We just looked at the schedule the travel agency had provided and followed it. thanks

24、 to the travel agency, we could just relax and enjoy our entire trip. This made things easier on my father since he did not have to worry every single minute about where we would go next. All in all, we had a great trip. 44 Group tours take the anxiety of daily planning out of traveling and let trav

25、elers enjoy their vacations without any stress. Time to have a tryTopic 1: It is better to take the most difficult and challenging classes in university or at college even if means that you probably will not get top grades in them. Theme: challengingOutlining Learn more and develop better study skil

26、ls 1)Achieve more as a students and individual 11 First of all, I can learn more and develop better study skills if I take difficult and challenging classes. 22 In those classes, the professors will be much more demanding and expect the best from their students. 33 For example, I once took a math cl

27、ass with a teacher who was infamous for being really tough. She definitely lived up to her reputation. I had loads of homework every night, and the class was a struggle at times. However, I got used to the heavy course load, and, while tough, the teacher was fair, and I learned more in that math cla

28、ss than in any other one I had ever taken. 44 Taking challenging courses is definitely a good way to learn more. 11 Moreover, by setting higher goals for myself, I can achieve more as a student and individual than I would if I set low goals or none at all. 22 Competing tough courses regardless of my

29、 final grades will increase my confidence and experience. 33 Last year, I enrolled in a French language course for the first time. I was nervous at first, and the course was demanding. But, in time, I developed a lot of confidence in this class. This year, I am continuing with French, and it is beco

30、ming much easier for me because of my experience. To me, it is the experience and confidence that counts, not getting a perfect grade. 44 Taking harder courses will clearly outweigh the easy ones. Have another try Topic: A teachers ability to relate well with his or her students is more important th

31、an the ability to give them knowledge. Theme: Agree, relate well with students 11 These days, teachers have to know not only how to get their students attention but also how to keep a hold of it in order to teach them. 22 The world has changed very much in the past decade, and students these days ar

32、e not interested in the same things they were ten or twenty years ago. 33 For example, we live in an age dominated by electronics, particularly computers. Most students my age know how to use all of the latest gadgets. Unfortunately, many teachers are technologically inept, so they have difficulty r

33、elating to students that way. Most of them never incorporate technology into their classes. Instead, they just lecture, which makes their classes boring. Some of them, however, use computers for things like PowerPoint presentations, which really helps to get most students attention. 44 Teachers that

34、 can relate to their students in areas like technology are definitely more able to keep their students attention. Practice for consolidation Topic: It is more important to use land for human needs such as farming, housing, and industry than to save it for endangered animals. Theme: save land for hum

35、ans 1 1 To begin with, humans need to use all of the land they can gain access to. 22 As the planets population continues to grow, people need to move onto land that was previously occupied only by animals. 33 In many countries, there are large numbers of cities with over a million people. In fact,

36、some cities, like Tokyo, Seoul, and New York, have populations of over ten million. These cities are overcrowded, so many people need to move out of them and onto new lands. While they may be moving to lands that are inhabited by endangered animals, the welfare of humans is much more important than

37、that of a few endangered animals. 44 People have to take care of Earths expanding population, and the best way to enable people to live more comfortably is to move onto lands inhabited by animals. 邏輯擴展方法1）羅列發(fā)2）分類法3）定義法4）舉例法5）因果法I. I.羅列法羅列法ListingListing： The importance of taking outdoor exercises ca

38、nnot be The importance of taking outdoor exercises cannot be overemphasized.overemphasized. To begin with, To begin with, In addition, In addition, Finally, Finally, Example: Example: This book will have a major impact on both politics This book will have a major impact on both politics and economic

39、s in China. and economics in China. In politics, In politics, In economics,In economics, Example: Example: Reading extensively is obviously of great benefit in learning a Reading extensively is obviously of great benefit in learning a new language.new language. For one thing, For one thing, For anot

40、her, For another, 邏輯詞連接邏輯詞連接第一（首先）：第一（首先）：First and foremost, First and foremost, To begin with, to start with, To begin with, to start with, in the first place,in the first place,For one thing, For one thing, 第二（其次）：第二（其次）：in addition, in addition, furthermore, furthermore, moreover, moreover, what

41、 is more, what is more, 第三（最后）：第三（最后）：Last but not least, more importantlyLast but not least, more importantly邏輯連接詞邏輯連接詞必須一起出現(xiàn)的短語：必須一起出現(xiàn)的短語：In the first place, In the first place, In the second place, In the second place, In the third place,In the third place,For one thing, For one thing, For anothe

42、r, For another, 邏輯連接詞邏輯連接詞但是（轉(zhuǎn)折）：但是（轉(zhuǎn)折）：otherwise, nevertheless, otherwise, nevertheless, 同時：同時：meanwhile=in the meantime meanwhile=in the meantime 因此：因此：as a result, accordingly,as a result, accordingly,consequently, therefore, consequently, therefore, 邏輯連接詞邏輯連接詞總之：總之： to sum up, all in all, genera

43、lly speaking, in generalto sum up, all in all, generally speaking, in general結(jié)論結(jié)論: : to conclude, in conclusion, to conclude, in conclusion, in short, in short, Practice Topic: Staying up late causes trouble (3 points; 80 words)Have a try Advantages/drawbacks of online-shopping II.II.分類法分類法Classific

44、ationClassification表示分類的常用詞語表示分類的常用詞語動詞：動詞： be divided into, be classified into, be grouped into, fall intobe divided into, be classified into, be grouped into, fall into 名詞：名詞： kind, sort, category, group, class, type kind, sort, category, group, class, type 分類法的段落主題句：分類法的段落主題句：e.g. e.g. 總體來說，根據(jù)地理位

45、置的不同，酒店可以分為總體來說，根據(jù)地理位置的不同，酒店可以分為四大類。四大類。總的來說：總的來說：Generally speaking Generally speaking 不同的地理位置：不同的地理位置：different locations different locations 酒店：酒店：hotelhotel總體來說，根據(jù)地理位置的不同，酒店可以分為總體來說，根據(jù)地理位置的不同，酒店可以分為四大類。四大類。Generally speaking, hotels can Generally speaking, hotels can be classified intobe classif

46、ied into 4 4 groups based on their different locations. groups based on their different locations. e.g. e.g. 中國父母對獨生子女的態(tài)度不同，可以分為三類。中國父母對獨生子女的態(tài)度不同，可以分為三類。 獨生子女：獨生子女：only child in the family only child in the family 不同態(tài)度：不同態(tài)度：different attitudes different attitudes Dictator, democracy, spoiling Dictat

47、or, democracy, spoiling 2 2、中國父母對獨生子女的態(tài)度不同，可以分為三、中國父母對獨生子女的態(tài)度不同，可以分為三類。類。 In China, parents can In China, parents can be divided intobe divided into 3 3 categories categories in in light oflight of their different attitudes on the only child in their different attitudes on the only child in the fami

48、ly.the family. Practice Topic: Classification of college students Knowledge-oriented Ability-oriented Fun-oriented Have a try Classification of friends III.III.定義法定義法 DefinitionDefinition正式定義：正式定義： form of form of is a species of which/who is a species of which/who kind of kind ofe.g. e.g. 1 1、牙醫(yī)是經(jīng)過

49、專業(yè)訓(xùn)練去護理人類牙齒的醫(yī)生。、牙醫(yī)是經(jīng)過專業(yè)訓(xùn)練去護理人類牙齒的醫(yī)生。 牙醫(yī)：牙醫(yī)：dentistdentist護理：護理：treattreat經(jīng)過專業(yè)訓(xùn)練：經(jīng)過專業(yè)訓(xùn)練：be professionally be professionally trained trained 牙醫(yī)是經(jīng)過專業(yè)訓(xùn)練去護理人類牙齒的醫(yī)生。牙醫(yī)是經(jīng)過專業(yè)訓(xùn)練去護理人類牙齒的醫(yī)生。 A dentist A dentist is a kind ofis a kind of doctor doctor who who is professionally is professionally trained to treat

50、peoples teeth. trained to treat peoples teeth. 銅是一種容易成形的軟性銅是一種容易成形的軟性 金屬。金屬。 銅：銅：coppercopper金屬：金屬：metalmetal 銅是一種容易成形的軟性金銅是一種容易成形的軟性金 屬。屬。Copper Copper is a sort ofis a sort of soft metal soft metal whichwhich is easily is easily shaped. shaped. 學(xué)術(shù)定義：學(xué)術(shù)定義： is a kind of science which is a kind of sc

51、ience which 是一種是一種的科學(xué)。的科學(xué)。地理學(xué)可以定義為研究地球表面的科學(xué)。地理學(xué)可以定義為研究地球表面的科學(xué)。地理學(xué)：地理學(xué)：geography geography 研究：研究：studystudy地球表面：地球表面：the surface of the earththe surface of the earth 地理學(xué)可以定義為研究地球表面的地理學(xué)可以定義為研究地球表面的科學(xué)?？茖W(xué)。Geography Geography is a kind of science whichis a kind of science which studies the studies the su

52、rface of the earth. surface of the earth. 語言學(xué)可以定義為研究人類語言的科學(xué)。語言學(xué)可以定義為研究人類語言的科學(xué)。語言學(xué)：語言學(xué)：linguisticslinguistics人類的語言：人類的語言：the language of human race the language of human race 語言學(xué)可以定義為研究人類語言的科學(xué)。語言學(xué)可以定義為研究人類語言的科學(xué)。 Linguistics Linguistics is a kind of science whichis a kind of science which studies the

53、studies the language of human race. language of human race. 注意定義之后，往往要和其他論證方法相結(jié)合，如舉例，如列舉等。Practice Topic: What is success?Career, family, morality IV. IV. 舉例法舉例法Examples Examples 例證的常用表達(dá)：例證的常用表達(dá)：As an illustration, As an illustration, A case in point is thatA case in point is thatTo take as an examp

54、le, To take as an example, To consideras an example, To consideras an example, 例證的常用表達(dá)：例證的常用表達(dá)：For example,For example,For instance, For instance, As the present situation shows in As the present situation shows in our country, our country, 數(shù)據(jù)或事例支持?jǐn)?shù)據(jù)或事例支持1 1）表示）表示“科學(xué)研究表明科學(xué)研究表明”According to a researc

55、h, According to a research, (Scientific) research shows/indicates/suggests(Scientific) research shows/indicates/suggests數(shù)據(jù)或事例支持?jǐn)?shù)據(jù)或事例支持2) 2) 表示表示“科學(xué)家認(rèn)為科學(xué)家認(rèn)為”According to scientists on According to scientists on 某學(xué)科某學(xué)科, Scientists on , Scientists on 某學(xué)科某學(xué)科 believe thatbelieve that地理學(xué)：地理學(xué)：Geography Geo

56、graphy 化學(xué)：化學(xué)：Chemistry Chemistry 數(shù)學(xué)：數(shù)學(xué)：Mathematics Mathematics 醫(yī)學(xué)：醫(yī)學(xué)：Medicine Medicine 生物學(xué)：生物學(xué)：Biology Biology 物理學(xué)：物理學(xué)：PhysicsPhysics建筑學(xué)：建筑學(xué)：ArchitectureArchitecture航空學(xué)：航空學(xué)：AeronauticsAeronautics文學(xué)：文學(xué)：Literature Literature 教育：教育：EducationEducation；PedagogicsPedagogics法學(xué)：法學(xué)：LawLaw經(jīng)濟：經(jīng)濟：Economics Econ

57、omics 政治：政治：Politics Politics 宗教：宗教：Religion Religion 音樂：音樂：Music Music 傳媒：傳媒：Mass Media Mass Media 旅游：旅游：Tourism Tourism 哲學(xué)：哲學(xué)：PhilosophyPhilosophy數(shù)據(jù)或事例支持?jǐn)?shù)據(jù)或事例支持3 3）表示）表示“數(shù)據(jù)表明數(shù)據(jù)表明”According to statisticsAccording to statisticsStatistics show/indicate/suggest thatStatistics show/indicate/suggest tha

58、tStatistics show thatStatistics show that the the tropical rain foreststropical rain forests（熱帶雨（熱帶雨林）林）of Amazon River were cut down at a rate of 14 of Amazon River were cut down at a rate of 14 million hectares(million hectares(公頃公頃) each year.) each year.數(shù)據(jù)或事例支持?jǐn)?shù)據(jù)或事例支持4 4）表示）表示“調(diào)查表明調(diào)查表明” Surveys

59、(A recent survey) show (indicate, suggest) that Surveys (A recent survey) show (indicate, suggest) that數(shù)據(jù)或事例支持?jǐn)?shù)據(jù)或事例支持5) 5)引導(dǎo)事實引導(dǎo)事實It is a well-known fact thatIt is a well-known fact thatIt is (widely) believed thatIt is (widely) believed thatIt is a widely-held belief thatIt is a widely-held belief

60、thatIt is true thatIt is true thatThere is no denying thatThere is no denying thate.g.e.g.不可否認(rèn)的是，互聯(lián)網(wǎng)是人類歷史上的不可否認(rèn)的是，互聯(lián)網(wǎng)是人類歷史上的一項偉大發(fā)明。一項偉大發(fā)明。e.g.e.g.There is no denying thatThere is no denying that Internet is a great Internet is a great invention in mankinds history.invention in mankinds history.數(shù)據(jù)或事例