結(jié)構(gòu)工程學(xué)和其設(shè)計(jì)原則和方法中英文對照150001

1、結(jié)構(gòu)工程學(xué)和其設(shè)計(jì)原則和方法1.1 結(jié)構(gòu)工程學(xué)和其設(shè)計(jì)過程一般來說，結(jié)構(gòu)工程學(xué)覆蓋規(guī)劃，設(shè)計(jì)和全部結(jié)構(gòu)的建設(shè)。對于鋼結(jié)構(gòu)，包括構(gòu)架，電鍍的結(jié)構(gòu)，外殼和受拉結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)成的自立、承重的形式在內(nèi)。特別是， 結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)的目的為滿足所需的用途而作出的安全、 經(jīng)濟(jì)的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)和制圖。設(shè)計(jì)過程的步驟能象下面這樣列出：( a) 初步的設(shè)計(jì)和規(guī)劃。這包括選用最經(jīng)濟(jì)的結(jié)構(gòu)形式和材料。初步的設(shè)計(jì)經(jīng)常為了能作比較而被認(rèn)為有必要。( b) 對一個(gè)給定類型和布置的建筑物進(jìn)行詳細(xì)的設(shè)計(jì)。這包括：(I)建筑物其分析和設(shè)計(jì)的可行性；(n)荷載的估計(jì)；1.1 分析各種可變荷載并進(jìn)行荷載的組合， 確定最不利的設(shè) 計(jì)荷載；(IV)基礎(chǔ)，結(jié)構(gòu)

2、的框架，構(gòu)件和連接設(shè)計(jì)；(V)最終的布置和詳圖的準(zhǔn)備工作。然后準(zhǔn)備的材料表，大量的清單和說明也許能結(jié)束概算和投標(biāo)書的編制。結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)人員使用他有關(guān)結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)和設(shè)計(jì)的知識，材料，巖土工程學(xué), 和實(shí)際規(guī)范，并且結(jié)合他的實(shí)際經(jīng)驗(yàn)而作出令人滿意的設(shè)計(jì)。他從專家處聽取勸告，運(yùn)用設(shè)計(jì)援助，手冊和計(jì)算機(jī)幫助他下決定并進(jìn)行復(fù)雜的分析。1.2 結(jié)構(gòu)工程師的性質(zhì)和角色從上面的所述可推斷出工程師的工作實(shí)際上是機(jī)械的。在建筑物建造過程中，對于下列人就某些場合認(rèn)為他的位置是起作用的：1、就必要的事請教建筑師的委托人；2、計(jì)劃和控制整個(gè)項(xiàng)目的建筑師聘請顧問；3、顧問進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)，準(zhǔn)備圖畫和投標(biāo)書，并進(jìn)行建筑物的建設(shè)監(jiān)督；4、承包

3、方進(jìn)行建筑物的建造、裝配和設(shè)備的安裝。另外， 設(shè)計(jì)員是具有專業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)水平隊(duì)伍的成員之一：總工程師，項(xiàng)目工程師，設(shè)計(jì)工程師，計(jì)算機(jī)職員，技術(shù)工程師，以及專家。他必須在隊(duì)伍里關(guān)系很好。一些質(zhì)量和特性的問題需要結(jié)構(gòu)工程師成功操作的有：對光學(xué)，聲學(xué)的了解和判斷，對大的管理的經(jīng)驗(yàn)和鍛煉。他的任務(wù)也許可以概括為規(guī)劃，設(shè)計(jì)，圖畫和投標(biāo)書的準(zhǔn)備和建造監(jiān)督。他決定材料，結(jié)構(gòu)形式和所使用的設(shè)計(jì)方法。他考慮投標(biāo)書的可行性，檢查、監(jiān)督、批準(zhǔn)建筑物的裝配和建造過程。他要對安全負(fù)全部責(zé)任，必須保證由偶然的原因造成的失敗結(jié)果在容許范圍內(nèi)。這本書中論述的設(shè)計(jì)知識結(jié)構(gòu)上工程師工作的一部分。1.3 建筑物的分類建筑物主要用于以下目

4、的：（ a ）圍住空地以便控制環(huán)境；（ b ）供應(yīng)人、機(jī)器及材料等有安置的場所；（ c ）安放和保存材料；（ d ）為人、機(jī)器及材料的運(yùn)輸跨越間隔?？蚣芙ㄖ锟梢愿鶕?jù)使用分類為：家庭用途住宅和別墅；商貿(mào)用途辦事處，銀行，貯藏及購物中心等；公共設(shè)施學(xué)校，醫(yī)院，體育設(shè)施等等；展覽性質(zhì)教堂，劇場，博物館，休閑中心，體育建筑等；工業(yè)用途工廠， 倉庫， 電廠， 鋼鐵廠， 制造廠， 小型機(jī)庫等。其他重要的工程學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)有：橋桁架，撐桿，拱以及懸索；塔水塔，塔式建筑物，燈塔等；海上結(jié)構(gòu)石油平臺(tái)；特殊結(jié)構(gòu)水泥碾磨設(shè)施，多層的汽車停車場，無線電望遠(yuǎn)鏡平臺(tái)，礦山頂部結(jié)構(gòu)等。上述列表中每個(gè)種類的結(jié)構(gòu)都能使用各種材料，結(jié)

5、構(gòu)形式或系統(tǒng)建造。 工程師常根據(jù)從使用的形式或系統(tǒng)分類的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)行使用。這些包括：（ a ） 單層單跨或多跨結(jié)構(gòu)可能采用桁架，支撐框架或剛性框架；（ b ）多層單跨或多跨也許是支撐或剛性框架結(jié)構(gòu)；（ c ） 空間分隔結(jié)構(gòu)空間甲板， 圓屋頂， 塔， 以及其他等等。空間甲板和現(xiàn)代的圓屋頂是超靜定結(jié)構(gòu)。塔也許是靜定的空間結(jié)構(gòu)；d ）受拉結(jié)構(gòu)，懸索結(jié)構(gòu)；（ e ）張力蒙皮結(jié)構(gòu)。板和殼型結(jié)構(gòu)，例如鋼容器，在這里不被考慮。書中只涉及所挑選的結(jié)構(gòu)的詳細(xì)設(shè)計(jì)和設(shè)計(jì)研究。1.4 概念設(shè)計(jì)，革新和計(jì)劃設(shè)計(jì)概念設(shè)計(jì)是進(jìn)行選擇適當(dāng)?shù)男问交蛳到y(tǒng)，并在給定的建筑位置作適當(dāng)?shù)牟贾?。這經(jīng)常是建筑師獨(dú)有的特權(quán)。最終產(chǎn)生的理想的

6、概念設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)該產(chǎn)生于建筑師，結(jié)構(gòu)及技術(shù)工程師等人的共同努力。不過，最偉大的成就往往是有才華的個(gè)人做的。例如，下面兩個(gè)人：Fazlur Khan 高層筒式結(jié)構(gòu)；Buckminster Fuller- 幾何圓屋頂。在英國常常是建筑師制出給定建筑物的形式和布置，對于他來說認(rèn)為是最好的。他的決定基于功能，美學(xué)， 環(huán)境， 以及經(jīng)濟(jì)上的考慮。然后結(jié)構(gòu)工程師從建筑師處獲得信息，進(jìn)行選擇和設(shè)計(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)形式，但他可能沒有在建筑師的最初設(shè)計(jì)中插手。而往往有一個(gè)因素是最主要，并起決定作用的因素, 例如，在工業(yè)廠房中考慮設(shè)備功能的操縱控制需求，但是，在展覽建筑中審美是主要的考慮。新穎和創(chuàng)新的建筑總是另人滿意的，而我們就是為

7、了這種目的努力。 但人開發(fā)的建筑形式總是受所使用的材料的可用性和他當(dāng)時(shí)的知識所限制。過去同現(xiàn)在一樣，當(dāng)超出限制時(shí)結(jié)構(gòu)一般都失敗。經(jīng)常建筑形式不是新的解決辦法，但是是證明好的現(xiàn)有形式并進(jìn)行正確的選擇。以下是最近的結(jié)構(gòu)工程學(xué)革新的例子：（ a ）分析方法矩陣和有限元法；（ b ）設(shè)計(jì)方法塑性設(shè)計(jì)，極限狀態(tài)理論和優(yōu)化設(shè)計(jì)；（ c ）建筑物形式空間甲板，幾何圓屋頂，現(xiàn)代受拉結(jié)構(gòu)，箱式桁架橋，多層懸索結(jié)構(gòu)等。規(guī)劃也許是概念設(shè)計(jì)的實(shí)際的表達(dá)。各種不同的提議被反映在圖紙上，比如總體布置，平面圖及立面圖來滿足各種需求，還有透視圖來給最終的設(shè)計(jì)有一個(gè)直觀的印象。其周圍的建筑模型和比例也可能影響設(shè)計(jì)的最后決定。計(jì)

8、劃設(shè)計(jì)的準(zhǔn)備和介紹對最后的通過很重要，因?yàn)橥ㄟ^往往取決于那些非技術(shù)性的人們。另外， 工程師必須考慮結(jié)構(gòu)所用的材料，如鋼鐵、混凝土、磚石或木材，并做出最適當(dāng)?shù)倪x擇。需要在概念、計(jì)劃設(shè)計(jì)階段考慮的因素有以下一些方面：（ a ）建筑物的位置和其周圍環(huán)境；（ b ）場地及基礎(chǔ)的條件；（ c ）在建造過程中的天氣條件；（ d ）材料的有效性；（ e ）材料和裝配構(gòu)件往工地的運(yùn)輸；（ f ）裝配和建造過程中，勞力作工的質(zhì)量是必需和有效的；（ g ）在制作和建造中適當(dāng)程度的監(jiān)督；（ h ）由疲勞和脆性破壞可能產(chǎn)生的；（ i ）測定需要了給針對腐蝕和火的保護(hù)措施；（ j ）偶然損害的可能性；（ k ）完成后必

9、要的維修；（ l ）將來破壞的可能性。往往考慮結(jié)構(gòu)和建造方法形式和類型的最終決定依賴很多因素，成本而將其它置之腦后。外文資料：Structural engineering， design principles and methods1.1 Structural engineering and the design processIn general , structural engineering covers planning , design and construction of all structures . For steelwork these include self-supp

10、orting and load-bearing forms consisting of frameworks , plated structures, shells and tension structures. In particular the aim of structural design is to produce the design and drawings for a safe and economical structure that fulfills its required purpose. The steps in the design process can be s

11、et out as follows .(a) Conceptual design and planning . This involves selecting the most economical structural form and materials to be used . Preliminary designs are often necessary to enable comparisons to be made.(b) Detail design for a given type and arrangement of structure. This includes:( I )

12、 idealization of the structure for analysis and design;( H ) estimation of loading;( HI ) analysis for the various load cases and combinations of loads and identification of the most severedesign actions;( IV ) design of the foundations , structural frames, elements and connection;( V ) preparation

13、of the final arrangement and detail drawings.The materials list, bill of quantities and specification may then be prepared to enable the estimates and tender documents to be completed .The structural designer uses his knowledge of structural mechanics and design , materials ,geotechnics ,and the cod

14、es of practice and combines this with his practical experience to produce a satisfactory design . He takes advice from specialists and makes use of design aids, handbooks and computers to help him in making decisions and to carry out complex analysis.1.2 The qualities and role of the structural engi

15、neer The above description infers that the designer s workis mechanical in nature. It is useful to consider his position in building construction where the parties involved are:client who consults an architect about requirements;architect who plans controls the project and engages the consultants;co

16、nsultants who carry out the design , prepare drawings and tender documents and supervise construction ;contractor who carries out fabrication , construction and installation of equipment.The designer is also a memberof a team at design office level consisting of : chief engineer, project engineer, d

17、esign engineer, computer staff, technician engineers and specialists . He must fit smoothly into the team .Some of the qualities and attributes needed by the structural engineer to operate successfully are : flare , sound knowledge and judgment, experience and exercise of great care. His role may be

18、 summarized as planning , design , preparation of drawings and tender documents and supervision of construction . He makes decisions about materials , structural form and design methods to be used . He recommends acceptance of tenders , inspects , supervises and approves fabrication and construction

19、 . He has an overall responsibility for safety and must ensure that the consequences of failure due to accidental causes are limited in extent .The design s work which is covered , in part , in this book is one portion of a structural engineer s work .1.3 Classification of structuresStructures are n

20、eeded for the following purposes :( a ) to enclose space for environmental control ;( b ) to support people , equipment , materials etc at required locations in space ;( c ) to contain and retain materials ;( d ) to span gaps for the transport of people , equipment , materials etc .Framed buildings

21、may be classified according to use :domestic - houses and flats ;commercial offices , banks , department stores , shoppingcenters etc ;institutional - schools , hospitals , goals etc ;exhibition churches , theatres , museums, leisure centers , sports building etc ;industrial - factories , warehouses

22、 , power stations , steelworks , manufacturing plant , aircraft hangers etc .Other important engineering structures are :bridges truss , girder , arch and suspension ;towers water towers , pylons , lighting towers etc ;offshore structures oil well platforms ;special structures - grandstands , multi-

23、storey car parks ,radio telescopesmine head framesetc .Each type of structure in the above list can be constructed using a variety of materials , structural forms or systems . The engineer often uses a classification for steel structures based on the form or system used. This gives :( a ) single sto

24、ry single- or multi-bay structures which may be either truss and stanchion frames or rigid frames ;( b ) multi-storey single- or multi-bay structures which may be either braced or rigid frame construction ;(c ) space structures - space decks , domes , towers , etc . Space decks and modern domesare r

25、edundant structures . Towers may be statically determinate space structures ;( d ) tension structures and suspended structures ;( e ) stressed skin structures .Plate and shell type structures , e.g. steel tanks , are not considered here . Detail designs and design studies are given in the book for s

26、elected structures .1.4 Conceptual design, innovation and planningConceptual design is the function of choosing a suitable form or system or arrangement to meet a given structural situation . This function is often the sole prerogative of the architect .Ideally , conceptual design should result from

27、 a team effort where architect , civil , structural and service engineers all contribute to the final solution . Modern consulting practices take this multi-disciplinary approach to conceptual design .However , the greatest achievements often are made by gifted individuals . For example , to name tw

28、o individuals :Fazlur Khan - tube system for tall buildings ;Buckminster Fuller - geodesic domes .In the United Kingdomit is often the architect who produces the form and arrangement he considers as the best solution to a giver problem . He bases his decision on functional , aesthetic , environmenta

29、l and economic considerations . The structural engineer is then faced with choosing and designing a structu ral system that will bring the architect s ideas into being and he may be hampered by not having had a hand in the original decisions . Any of the factors mentioned may be of paramount importa

30、nce in arriving at a decision ,for example , in industrial plant , the functional requirement controls, whereas in an exhibition building the aesthetic aspect is a major consideration .Novelty and innovation are always desirable and we seemto strive after these goals . It should be realized that man

31、 hasalways exploited the forms construction possible within the limits of the materials available and the state of his knowledge at the time . In the past as well as in the present, structural failures determine when limits are reached . Often it is not a new solution that is required but the correc

32、t choice and use of a well proved existing structures . The following are instances of recent structural engineering innovation: (a ) analysis matrix and finite element methods;(b ) design plastic design , limit state theory and optimization ;(c ) construction - space decks , geodesic domes and the

33、modern tension structures , box girder bridges , suspended multi-storey buildings etc .Planning may be described as the practical expression of conceptual design . The various proposals must be translated into drawings , such as general arrangements consisting of plans and elevations to set out the

34、functional requirements and perspective drawings to give a realistic impression of the finished concept . Scale models of the complete structure in its surroundings may be made to assist in making the final decision. The preparation and presentation of planning proposals are very important as the final approval for schemes often rests with nontechnical people.The engineer must als