2019西方原著選讀期末考試翻譯資料

1、John LockeLifeJohn Locke was born at Wrington, a village in Somerset, on August 29, 1632. He was the son of a country solicitor and smalllandowner who, when the civil war broke out, served as a captain of horse in the parliamentary army.“Ineorcseoiovneedrmpyself in the world than I found myselfin a

2、storm,”he wrote long afterwards, during the lull in the storm which followed the kings return. But political unrest doesnot seem to have seriously disturbed the course of his education. He entered Westminster school in 1646, and passed toChrist Church, Oxford, as a junior student, in 1652; and he ha

3、d a home there (though absent from it for long periods) for morethan thirty yearstill deprived of his studentship by royal mandate in 1684. The official studies of the university wereuncongenial to him; he would have preferred to have learned philosophy from Descartes instead of from Aristotle; bute

4、vidently he satisfied the authorities, for he was elected to a senior studentship in 1659, and, in the three or four yearsfollowing, he took part in the tutorial work of the college. At one time he seems to have thought of the clerical profession as apossible career; but he declined an offer of pref

5、erment in 1666, and in the same year obtained a dispensation which enabledhim to hold his studentship without taking orders. About the same time we hear of his interest in experimental science, and hewas elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1668. Little is known of his early medical studies. He

6、cannot have followed theregular course, for he was unable to obtain the degree of doctor of medicine. It was not till 1674 that he graduated asbachelor of medicine. In the following January his position in Christ Church was regularized by his appointment to one of thetwo medical studentships of the

7、college.His knowledge of medicine and occasional practice of the art led, in 1666, to an acquaintance with Lord Ashley (afterwards,from 1672, Earl of Shaftesbury). The acquaintance, begun accidentally, had an immediate effect on Lockecasreer. Withoutserving his connection with Oxford, he became a me

8、mber of Shaftesburys household, and seems soon to have beenlookedupon as indispensable in all matters domestic and political. He saved the statesmanlifes by a skillful operation, arranged asuitable marriage for his heir, attended the lady in her confinement, and directed the nursing and education of

9、 her sonafterwards famous as the author of Characteristics. He assisted Shaftesbury also in public business, commercial andpolitical, and followed him into the government service. When Shaftesbury was made lord chancellor in 1672, Locke becamehis secretary for presentations to benefices, and, in the

10、 following year, was made secretary to the board of trade. In 1675 hisofficial life came to an end for the time with the fall of his chief.Lockes health, always delicate, suffered from the London climate. When released from the cares of office, he left England insearch of health. Ten years earlier h

11、e had his first experience of foreign travel and of public employment, as secretary to SirWalter Vane, ambassador to the Elector of Brandenburg during the first Dutch war. On his return to England, early in 1666,he declined an offer of further service in Spain, and settled again in Oxford, but was s

12、oon induced byShaftesbury to spend a great part of his time in London. On his release from office in 1675 he sought milder air in the southof France, made leisurely journeys, and settled down for many months at Montpellier. The journal which he kept at this periodis full of minute descriptions of pl

13、aces and customs and institutions. It contains also a record of many of the reflections thatafterwards took shape in the Essay concerning Human Understanding. he returned to England in 1679, when his patron hadagain a short spell of office. He does not seem to have been concerned in Shaftesburys lat

14、er schemes; but suspicionnaturally fell upon him, and he found itprudent to take refuge in Holland. This he did in August 1683, less than a year after the flight and death of Shaftesbury. Evenin Holland for some time he was not safe from danger of arrest at the instance of the English government; he

15、 moved fromtown to town, lived under an assumed name, and visited his friends by stealth. His residence in Holland brought politicaloccupations with it, among the men who were preparing the English revolution. it had at least equal value in the leisure whichit gave him for literary work and in the f

16、riendships which it offered. In particular, he formed a close intimacy with Philip vanLimbroch, the leader of the Remonstrant clergy, and the scholar and liberal theologian to whom Epistola de Tolerantia wasdedicated. This letter was completed in 1685, though not published at the time; and, before h

17、e left for England, in February1689, the Essay concerning Human Understanding seems to have attained its final form, and an abstract of it was publishedin LeclercsBibliotheque universelle in 1688.The new government recognized his services to the cause of freedom by the offer of the post of ambassado

18、r either at Berlinor at Vienna. But Locke was no place hunter; he was solicitous also on account of his health; his earlier experience ofGermany led him to fear the“coladir”and“warm drinking”; andhitghheoffice was declined. But he served less importantoffices at home. He was made commissioner of app

19、eals in May 1689, and, from 1696 to 1700, he was a commissioner oftrade and plantations at a salary of L1000 a year. Although official duties called him to town for protracted periods, he wasable to fix his residence in the country. In 1691 he was persuaded to make his permanent home at Oates in Ess

20、ex, in thehouse of Francis and Lady Masham. Lady Masham was a daughter of Cudworth, the Cambridge Platonist; Lock hadmanifested a growing sympathy with his type of liberal theology; intellectual affinity increased his friendship with the family atOates; and he continued to live with them till his de

21、ath on October 28, 1704.2. WritingsWith the exception of the abstract of the Essay and other less important contributions to the Bibliotheque universelle, Lockehad not published anything before his return to England in 1689; and by this time he was in his fifty-seventh year. But manyyears of reflect

22、ion and preparation made him ready at that time to publish books in rapid succession. In March 1689 hisEpistola de Tolerantia was published in Holland; an English translation of the same, by William Popple, appeared later in thesame year, and in a corrected edition in 1690. The controversy which fol

23、lowed this work led, on Lockespart,tothepublication of a Second Letter (1690), and then aThird Letter (1692). In February 1690 the book entitled Two Treatises of Government was published, and in March of thesame year appeared the long expected Essay concerning Human Understanding, on which he had be

24、en at workintermittently since 1671. it met with immediate success, and led to a voluminous literature of attack and reply; young fellowsof colleges tried to introduce it at the universities, and heads of houses sat in conclave to devise means for its suppression.To one of his critics Locke replied

25、at length. This was Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, who, in his Vindication of theDoctrine of the Trinity (1696), had attacked the new philosophy. It was the theological consequences which were drawn fromthe doctrines of theEssay, not so much by Locke himself as by Toland, in his Christia

26、nity not Mysterious, that the bishop hadchiefly in view; in philosophy for its own sake he does not seem to have been interested. But his criticism drew attention toone of the least satisfactory (if also one of the most suggestive) doctrines of the Essayits explanation of the idea ofsubstance; and d

27、iscredit was thrown on the“new way of ideas”in general. In January 1697 Locke replied in A Letter to theBishop of Worcester. Stillingfleet answered this in May; and Locke was ready with a second letter in August. Stillingfleetreplied in 1698, and Lockelesngthy third letter appeared in 1699. The bish

28、ops death, later in the same year, put an end tothe controversy. The second edition of the Essay was published in 1694, the third in 1695, and the fourth in 1700. Thesecond and fourth editions contained important additions. An abridgement of it appeared in 1696, by John Wynne, fellow ofJesus College

29、, Oxford; it was translated into Latin and into French soon after the appearance of the fourth edition. The latereditions contain many modifications due to the authors correspondencweith William Molyneux, of Trinity College, Dublin, adevoted disciple, for whom Locke had a worm friendship. Other corr

30、espondents and visitors to Oates during these yearswere Isaac Newton and Anthony Collins, a young squire of the neighborhood, who afterwards made his mark in theintellectual controversies of the time.Other interests also occupied Locke during the years following the publication of his great work.The

31、 financial difficulties of the new government led in 1691 to his publication of Some Considerations of the Consequencesof Lowering of Interest, and Raising the Value of Money, and of Further Considerations on the latter question, four years later.In 1693 he published Some Thoughts concerning Educati

32、on, a work founded on letters written to a friend, and in 1695appeared The Reasonableness of Christianity, and later A Vindication of the same against certain objections; and this wasfollowed by a second vindication two years afterwards. Lockes reinterest had always been strongly marked, and, in he

33、later years of his life, much of his tie was given to theology. Among thewritings of his which were published after his death are commentaries on the Pauline epistles, and a Discourse on Miracles,as well as a fragment of aFourth Letter for Toleration. The posthumously published writings include furt

34、her An Examination ofFather Malebranches Opinion of Seeing all things in God, Remarks on Some of MrNorrisBosoks, andmost important of allthe small treatise on The Conduct of the Understanding which had beenoriginally designed as a chapter of the Essay.Two Treatises of GovernmentIn Two Treatises of G

35、overnment he has two purposes in view: to refute the doctrine of the divineand absolute right of the Monarch, as it had been put forwardby Robert Filmers Patriarcha, andto establish a theory which would reconcile the liberty of the citizen with political order. The criticism of Filmer in the firstTr

36、eatise is complete. His theory of the absolute sovereignty of Adam, and so of kings as Adamsheirs, has lost all interest;and Lockeasrgument has been only too effective: his exhaustive reply to so absurd a thesis becomes itself wearisome.Although there is little direct reference to Hobbes, Locke seem

37、s to have had Hobbes in mind when he argued thatthe doctrine of absolute monarchy leaves sovereign and subjects in the state of nature towards one another. Theconstructive doctrines which are elaborated in the second treatise became the basis of social and political philosophy forgenerations. Labor

38、is the origin and justification of property; contract or consent is the ground of government and fixes itslimits. Behind both doctrines lies the idea of the independence of the individual person. The state of nature knows nogovernment; but in it, as in political society, men are subject to the moral

39、 law, which is the law of God. Men are born free andequal in rights. Whatever a man“mixes his labour with”isuse. Or, at least, this was so in the primitive condition of human life in which there was enough for all and“the wholeearth was America.”Locke sees that, when men have multiplied and landhas

40、become scarce, rules are needed beyond those which the moral law or law of nature supplies.But the origin of government is traced not to this economic necessity, but to another cause. The moral law is always valid, butit is not always kept. In the state of nature all men equally have the right to pu

41、nish transgressors: civil society originates when,for the better administration of the law, men agree to delegate this function to certain officers. Thus government is institutedby a“social contract”; its powers are limited, and they involve reciprocal obligations; moreover, theycan be modified or r

42、escinded by the authority which conferred them.Lockes theory is thus nomore historical than Hobbess. It is a rendering of the facts of constitutional government in termsof thought, and it served its purpose as a justification of the Revolution settlement in accordance with the ideas of the time.Lett

43、ers on Religious TolerationLockepslea for toleration in matters of belief has become classical. His Common-Place Book shows that his mind was clearon the subject more than twenty years before the publication of his first Letter. The topic, indeed, was in the air all through hislife, and affected him

44、 nearly. When he was a scholar at Westminster, the powers of the civil magistrate in religious matterswere the subject of heated discussion between Presbyterians and independents in the assembly of divines that held itssessions within a stones throw of his dormitory; and, when he entered Christ Chur

45、ch,John Owen, a leader of the independents, had been recently appointed to the deanery. There had been many arguments fortoleration before this time, but they had come from the weaker party in the state. Thus Jeremy Taylors Liberty ofProphesying appeared in 1646, when the fortunes ofhis side had suf

46、fered a decline. For Owen the credit has been claimed that he was the first who argued for tolerationh“iswphaertny was uppermost.”He was called upon to preach before theHouse of Commons on January 31, 1649, and performed the task without making any reference to the tragic event of theprevious day; b

47、ut to the published sermon he appended a remarkable discussion on toleration. Owen did not take such highground as Milton did, ten years later, in his Treatise of Civil Power in Ecclesiastical Causesaffirming that“it is notlawful for any power onearth to compel in matters of religion.”He abnocutinod

48、ns,inanddisitni deed his position callsfor some subtlety. He holds that the civil magistrate has duties to the church, and that he ought to give facilities and protectionto its ministers, not merely as citizens but as preachers of truth”o;n the other hand he argues that civil or corporeal penaltiesa

49、re inappropriate as punishments for offences which are purely spiritual.The position ultimately adopted by Locke is not altogether the same as this. He was never anardent puritan; he had as little taste for elaborate theologies as he had for scholastic systems of philosophy; and his earliestattempt

50、at a theory of toleration was connected with the view that in religion,“articles in speculative opinions should befew and large, and ceremonies in worshipfew and easy.”The doctrines which he held to be necessary for salvation would have seemed to John Owen a meager andpitiful creed. And he had a narrower view also of the functions of the state.“The business of laws,”he says,is not to provide for the truth of opinions, but for the safety and security of the commonwealth, and of every particular mans goods and person. And so it ought to be. For truth