Michael R. Solomon《消費(fèi)者行為學(xué)第6版 Consumer Behavior - Buying, Having, and Being (Sixth Edition)》原版講義17

1、CHAPTER SUMMARYThe styles prevalent in a culture at any point in time often reflect underlying political and social conditions. The set of agents responsible for creating stylistic alternatives is termed a culture production system. Factors such as the types of people involved in this system and the

2、 amount of competition by alternative product forms influence the choices that eventually make their way to the marketplace for consideration by end consumers.Culture is often described in terms of high (or elite) forms and low (or popular) forms. Products of popular culture tend to follow a cultura

3、l formula and contain predictable components. On the other hand, these distinctions are blurring in modern society as imagery from “high art” is increasingly being incorporated into marketing efforts.Reality engineering occurs as elements of popular culture are appropriated by marketers and converte

4、d to vehicles for promotional strategies. These elements include sensory and spatial aspects of everyday existence, whether in the form of products appearing in movies, odors pumped in to offices and stores, billboards, theme parks, and video monitors attached to shopping carts.Diffusion of innovati

5、on refers to the process whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads through a population. Innovators and early adopters are quick to adopt new products, and laggards are slow. A consumers decision to adopt a new product depends on his or her personal characteristics as well as on characteristic

6、s of the innovation itself. Products stand a better chance of being adopted if they demand relatively little change in behavior from users, are easy to understand, and provide a relative advantage compared to existing products.The fashion system includes everyone involved in the creation and transfe

7、rence of symbolic meanings. Meanings that express cultural categories (e.g., gender distinctions) are conveyed by many different products. New styles tend to be adopted by many people simultaneously in a process known as collective selection. Perspectives on motivations for adopting new styles inclu

8、de psychological, economic, and sociological models of fashion. Fashions tend to follow cycles that resemble the product life cycle. The two extremes of fashion adoption, classics and fads, can be distinguished in terms of the length of this cycle.THE CREATION AND DIFFUSION OF GLOBAL CONSUMER CULTUR

9、E C H A P T E R 17 17Because a consumers culture exerts such a big influence on his or her lifestyle choices, marketers must learn as much as possible about differences in cultural norms and preferences when marketing in more than one country. One important issue is to the extent to which marketing

10、strategies must be tailored to each culture versus standardized across cultures. Followers of an etic perspective believe that the same universal messages will be appreciated by people in many cultures. Believers in an emic perspective argue that individual cultures are too unique to permit such sta

11、ndardizationmarketers must instead adapt their approaches to be consistent with local values and practices. Attempts at global marketing have met with mixed success; in many cases this approach is more likely to work if the messages appeal to basic values and/or if the target market consists of cons

12、umers who are more internationally rather than locally oriented.The United States is a net exporter of popular culture. Consumers around the world have eagerly adopted American products, especially entertainment vehicles and items that are linked symbolically to a uniquely American lifestyle (e.g.,

13、Marlboro cigarettes, Levis jeans). Despite the continuing “Americanization” of world culture, some consumers are alarmed by this influence and are instead emphasizing a return to local products and customs. In other cases, they are integrating these products with existing cultural practices in a pro

14、cess known as creolization.CHAPTER OUTLINE1. Introduction The Creation of Culture a. Big corporations are currently working hard to capture market share in the rapidly growing black urban culture. They are looking for the next hot fashion. b. It is quite common for mainstream culture to modify symbo

15、ls identified with “cutting edge” subcultures and present these to a larger audience. 1) As this occurs, these cultural products undergo a process of co-optation, where their original meanings are transformed by outsiders. 2) In many instances, cultural changes are brought to the average person via

16、advertising and the fashion industry.*Use Figure 17-1 Here *Discussion OpportunityAsk: Can you think of an example where co-optation has occurred? What evidence of this was in advertising or on the mass media? Hint: Think of slang language used by African-American rappers that has become common to o

17、ur daily expressions.Discussion OpportunityAsk: What evidence is there that the Viet Nam War and the “Flower Power” generation still influences the culture of todays youth (if it does)? Give examples. Cultural Selection c. We inhabit a world brimming with different styles and possibilities. Consumer

18、s may at times feel overwhelmed by the sheer number of choices in the market- place. 1) The selection of certain alternatives over others (such as an automobile) is the culmination of a complex filtration process resembling a funnel. 2) Many possibilities initially compete for adoption, and these ar

19、e steadily winnowed down as they make their way down the path from conception to consumption in a process of cultural selection.*Use Figure 17-2 Here *Discussion OpportunityWhat new styles have you seen appear in the last six months? How many of these have begun to appear on television (either in th

20、e ads or on the shows)? How long do you think the styles will last? 3) Styles are not formed in a vacuum. d. Some of the characteristics of fashion and popular culture are: 1) Styles often are a reflection of deeper social trends (e.g., politics and social conditions). 2) Styles usually originate as

21、 an interplay between the deliberate inventions of designers and business people and spontaneous actions by ordinary consumers. 3) These cultural products can travel widely. 4) A style begins as a risky or unique statement by a relatively small group of people. 5) Most styles eventually wear out. Cu

22、lture Production Systems e. The set of individuals and organizations responsible for creating and marketing a cultural product is a culture production system (CPS). 1) The nature of these systems helps to determine the types of products that eventually emerge from them. 2) Factors such as the number

23、 and diversity of competing systems and the amount of innovation versus conformity that is encouraged are important. 3) The different members of a culture production system may not necessarily be aware of or appreciate the roles played by the other members, yet many diverse agents work together to c

24、reate popular culture. f. A culture production system has three major subsystems: 1) Creative subsystemresponsible for generating new symbols and/or products. 2) Managerial subsystemresponsible for selecting, making tangible, mass producing, and managing the distribution of new symbols and/or produc

25、ts. 3) Communications subsystemresponsible for giving meaning to the new product and providing it with a symbolic set of attributes that are communicated to consumers.*Use Table 17-1 Here *Discussion OpportunityThink of an example of a culture production system and identify the members of the system

26、 for a popular custom or trend that impacts college students. g. Many judges or “tastemakers” influence the products that are eventually offered to consumers. These cultural gatekeepers are responsible for filtering the overflow of information and materials intended for consumers (collectively, this

27、 is known as the throughput sector). Discussion OpportunityAsk: Who do you know that might be classified as a cultural gatekeeper? Explain. High Culture and Popular Culture h. Culture production systems create many diverse products, but some basic distinctions can be offered regarding their characte

28、ristics. 1) Arts versus crafts. a) An art product is viewed primarily as an object of aesthetic contemplation without any functional value. b) A craft product is admired because of the beauty with which it performs some function (such as a ceramic ashtray).*Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #2 Here *

29、2) High art versus low art. 3) Mass culture churns out products specifically for a mass market. Many of these products follow a cultural formula (where certain roles and props often occur consistentlyas in a pulp detective story or a romance novel). *Use Table 17-2 Here *Discussion OpportunityThink

30、of an illustration where a cultural formula might be used in marketing a product.Discussion OpportunityAsk: Can any cultural formulas be applied to college life? Explain. 4) Aesthetic marketing research. a) Creators of aesthetic products are increasingly adapting conventional marketing methods to fi

31、ne tune their mass-market offerings. b) Marketing research is used to test audience reactions to concepts. c) Content of movies is often influenced by consumer research. *Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #3 Here * Reality Engineering i. Reality engineering occurs as elements of popular culture are ap

32、propriated by marketers and converted to vehicles for promotional strategies. 1) These elements include sensory and spatial aspects of everyday existence. 2) Reality engineering is accelerating due to the current popularity of product placements by marketers. 3) Media images appear to significantly

33、influence consumers perceptions of reality, affecting viewers notions about such issues as dating behavior, racial stereotypes, and occupational status. 4) Studies of the cultivation hypothesis, which refers to medias ability to distort consumers perceptions of reality, have shown that heavy televis

34、ion viewers tend to overestimate the degree of affluence in the country, and these effects also extend to such areas as perceptions of the amount of violence in ones culture. 5) Product placement refers to the insertion of specific products and/or use of brand names in movie and television scripts.

35、6) Some researchers claim product placement helps in consumer decision making. *Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #5 Here *Discussion OpportunityDo a little research on the practical applications of product placement. Rent a movie or watch TV for an evening prior to this class discussion. Count the nu

36、mber of products that have been placed in the movie. How many were there? What effect (if any) did these product placements have on you? What do you think of product placement in childrens movies? 7) A concept related to product placement is advergaming, the practice of merging interactive advertise

37、ments with online games. 2. The Diffusion of Innovations a. An innovation is any product or service that is perceived to be new by consumers (even if it has been used by others in other places). b. Diffusion of innovations refers to the process whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads through

38、 a population.Discussion OpportunityAsk: What product have you recently purchased that you would classify as an innovation? Where did you hear about it? What thought process did you go through before you made the purchase?Discussion OpportunityAsk: Is the diffusion of innovation process different vi

39、a the Internet as opposed to more normal channels? Explain your answer and give an example. Adopting Innovations c. A consumers adoption of an innovation resembles the decision-making sequence discussed in Chapter 9. 1) Not all people adopt a product at the same time. a) Categories of adopters can b

40、e related to phases of the product-life-cycle concept used widely by marketing strategists. *Use Figure 17-3 Here * 2) Adopter categories include: a) Innovatorsthe first to buy; will buy novel products. 1) A lead user is an involved, experienced customer who is very knowledgeable about the field. b)

41、 Early adoptersshare many of the characteristics with the innovators, however, they have a higher degree or concern for social acceptance. c) Early majoritysometimes called late adopters. d) Late majoritylate adopters are the mainstream public. e) Laggardsthe last to adopt a product. *Use Figure 17-

42、3 (Used Previously) Here *Discussion OpportunityBring in magazine ads that you think would be directed at the various adopter categories. Explain your reasoning.Discussion OpportunityCreate an illustration of the types of adopters using a high-tech product or the e-commerce on the Internet. Behavior

43、al Demands of Innovations d. Innovations can be categorized in terms of the degree to which they demand changes in behavior from adopters. Three major forms are: 1) A continuous innovation refers to a modification of an existing product. 2) A dynamically continuous innovation is a more pronounced ch

44、ange in the existing product. 3) A discontinuous innovation creates major changes in the way we live.Discussion OpportunityWith input from students, make a list of products that fit the three forms of innovations. Discuss the significance of these innovations. How does the promotion for these produc

45、ts differ? Prerequisites for Successful Adoption e. Regardless of how much behavioral change is demanded by an innovation, several factors are desirable for a new product to succeed. These may be classified and summarized as being: 1) Compatibilitymust fit the consumers lifestyle. 2) Trialabilityred

46、uce risk by letting the consumer try it. 3) Complexitythe lower the better. 4) Observabilityinnovations that are observable spread faster. 5) Relative advantagemust give advantages other products dont.Discussion OpportunityAsk: What do you think were the three most important innovations in your life

47、time (so far)? In your parents lifetime? In your grandparents lifetime? How did the innovations you just listed match with the prerequisites for successful adoption list?Discussion OpportunityUsing an example of your own choosing, illustrate how the prerequisites for successful adoption influenced y

48、our purchase of a product or service.3. The Fashion System a. The fashion system consists of all those people and organizations involved in creating symbolic meanings and transferring these meanings to cultural goods. 1) Fashion can be thought of as a code or language. a) It is context-dependent. b)

49、 Fashion products are often undercoded. 2) Fashion is the process of social diffusion by which a new style is adopted by some group(s) of consumers. a) A fashion, in contrast, refers to a particular combination of attributes. b) In fashion means that this combination is currently positively evaluate

50、d by some reference group. Cultural Categories b. The meaning that does get imparted to products reflects underlying cultural categories, which correspond to the basic ways we characterize the world. 1) These cultural categories affect many different products and styles. 2) Costumes worn by celebrit

51、ies can affect the world of fashion.Discussion OpportunityAsk: What are some fashions (fads) that have been started by popular movies? c. The process by which certain symbolic alternatives are chosen over others has been termed collective selection. As with the creative subsystem, members of the man

52、agerial and communications subsystems also seem to develop a common frame of mind.*Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #6 Here *Discussion OpportunityAsk: What would you say is the current fashion theme or motif? How has this affected advertising, movies, and marketing? How long do you think it will las

53、t? Behavioral Science Perspective on Fashion d. Fashion is a very complex process and operates on many levels. 1) Many psychological factors help to explain why people are motivated to be in fashion. These include: a) Conformity b) Variety-seeking c) Personal creativity d) Sexual attraction 2) An ea

54、rly theory of fashion proposed that “shifting erogenous zones” (sexually arousing areas of the body) accounted for fashion changes, and that different zones become the object of interest because they reflect societal trends. 3) Economists approach fashion in terms of the model of supply and demand.

55、4) Veblens notion of conspicuous consumption applied. e. The collective selection model is an example of a sociological approach to fashion. 1) Trickle-down theory has been one of the most influential approaches to understanding fashion. Two conflicting forces drive fashion: a) Subordinate groups tr

56、y to adopt the status symbols of the groups above them as they attempt to climb up the ladder of social mobility. b) Those people in the superordinate groups are constantly looking below them on the ladder to ensure that they are not imitated. 2) Other theories include the trickle-across and trickle

57、-up theories. 3) Meme theory has been proposed to explain the fashion process using a medical metaphor. a) A meme is an idea or product that enters the consciousness of people over time. b) Memes “l(fā)eap” from brain to brain via a process of imitation. Discussion OpportunityAsk: Can you think of items

58、 people buy that seem to display their wealth? How do you know that these people have these items? Can you provide illustrations of the trickle-across and trickle-up theories?Discussion OpportunityAsk: Can you think of a current meme? Explain it and its effect. Cycles of Fashion Adoption f. Although

59、 the longevity of a particular style can range from a month to a century, fashions tend to flow in a predictable sequence. The fashion acceptance cycle is quite similar to the more familiar product life cycle.*Use Figure 17-4 Here * g. Consider how the fashion acceptance cycle works: 1) There is an

60、introduction stage. 2) An acceptance stage. 3) A regression stage. 4) Events that might happen during these stages include: a) The item becomes a classic where it has an extremely long acceptance cycle. b) The item is a fad where it is very short lived. 1. The fad is non-utilitarian. 2. The fad is a