學(xué)前兒童發(fā)展概論第一章

1、兒童發(fā)展概論兒童發(fā)展概論Growth and Development首都師范大學(xué) 黃翯青發(fā)展學(xué)科：一門(mén)關(guān)于年齡的科學(xué)孔子關(guān)于年齡的思想l 吾十有五，而志與學(xué)，l三十而立，l四十而不惑，l五十而知天命，l六十而耳順，l七十而從心所欲，不愈矩。l零歲出場(chǎng)亮相零歲出場(chǎng)亮相 十歲天天向上十歲天天向上 二十遠(yuǎn)大理想二十遠(yuǎn)大理想 三十三十到處吃香到處吃香 四十奮發(fā)圖強(qiáng)四十奮發(fā)圖強(qiáng) 五十開(kāi)始走樣五十開(kāi)始走樣 六十衣錦六十衣錦還鄉(xiāng)還鄉(xiāng) 七十打打麻將七十打打麻將 八十曬曬太陽(yáng)八十曬曬太陽(yáng),九十躺在床上九十躺在床上,一百歲肯定掛在墻上。一百歲肯定掛在墻上。我的世界我的世界：l人若有人若有100歲的境界，歲的境界，

2、80歲的胸懷，歲的胸懷，l60歲的智慧，歲的智慧，40歲的意志，歲的意志，20歲的激情歲的激情，加上兩三歲的童心，該有多好?。?，加上兩三歲的童心，該有多好??！全書(shū)內(nèi)容概要l第一章 緒論l第二章 兒童發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)l第三章 兒童感知覺(jué)和注意的發(fā)展l第四章 兒童記憶的發(fā)展l第五章 兒童想象、思維的發(fā)展l第六章 兒童言語(yǔ)的發(fā)展l第七章 兒童情緒的發(fā)展l第八章 兒童社會(huì)性的發(fā)展l第九章 兒童個(gè)性的發(fā)展l第十章 兒童道德的發(fā)展l第十一章 兒童發(fā)展的認(rèn)知神經(jīng)科學(xué)研究第一章 緒論l第一節(jié) 兒童發(fā)展概述l第二節(jié) 兒童發(fā)展研究的歷史和現(xiàn)狀l第三節(jié) 兒童發(fā)展研究方法第一節(jié) 兒童發(fā)展概述兒童期涵蓋的年齡范圍兒童發(fā)展的年

3、齡范圍l是個(gè)體從不成熟成熟這一成長(zhǎng)階段，是個(gè)體生命發(fā)展的重要組成部分?；煦?，未分化 分化，專(zhuān)門(mén)化被動(dòng)，不隨意 主動(dòng)，隨意認(rèn)識(shí)外部 認(rèn)識(shí)內(nèi)部態(tài)度不穩(wěn)定 穩(wěn)定生物人 社會(huì)人 一 兒童發(fā)展概念兒童的哪些方面在發(fā)展和變化？?jī)和l(fā)展的領(lǐng)域l生理發(fā)展l認(rèn)知發(fā)展l個(gè)性和社會(huì)性發(fā)展l文化性發(fā)展發(fā)展是指?jìng)€(gè)體身體、生理、心理、行為等方面的發(fā)育、成長(zhǎng)、分化、成熟和變化的過(guò)程。身體結(jié)構(gòu)的變化思維方式的變化13學(xué)步兒和5歲孩子的身體樣子很不一樣。這個(gè)女孩和她的小弟弟相比，身體線條看上去更像大人。兒童發(fā)展的特點(diǎn)l發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)性l發(fā)展的遞進(jìn)性l發(fā)展的易感性兒童發(fā)展的特點(diǎn)l發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)性l發(fā)展的遞進(jìn)性l發(fā)展的易感性兒童發(fā)展的特點(diǎn)

4、l發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)性l發(fā)展的遞進(jìn)性l發(fā)展的易感性兒童發(fā)展的特點(diǎn)l發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)性l發(fā)展的遞進(jìn)性l發(fā)展的易感性 兒童發(fā)展的概念l發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)性l發(fā)展的遞進(jìn)性l發(fā)展的易感性年齡領(lǐng)域第二節(jié)第二節(jié) 兒童發(fā)展研究的歷史和現(xiàn)兒童發(fā)展研究的歷史和現(xiàn)狀狀.兒童發(fā)展和人類(lèi)發(fā)展兒童發(fā)展和人類(lèi)發(fā)展心理的種系心理的種系發(fā)展發(fā)展廣廣義義發(fā)發(fā)展展心心理理學(xué)學(xué)狹義狹義發(fā)展心理學(xué)發(fā)展心理學(xué)心理的種族心理的種族發(fā)展發(fā)展個(gè)體心理發(fā)個(gè)體心理發(fā)展（生展（生死）死）2.2.發(fā)展心理學(xué)的概念發(fā)展心理學(xué)的概念研究個(gè)體從受精卵開(kāi)始到出生、到成熟、直至衰老的研究個(gè)體從受精卵開(kāi)始到出生、到成熟、直至衰老的生命全程中心理發(fā)生、發(fā)展的特點(diǎn)和規(guī)律的科學(xué)。生命全程

5、中心理發(fā)生、發(fā)展的特點(diǎn)和規(guī)律的科學(xué)。即研究畢生心理發(fā)展特點(diǎn)和規(guī)律的科學(xué)。即研究畢生心理發(fā)展特點(diǎn)和規(guī)律的科學(xué)。廣義發(fā)展心理學(xué)廣義發(fā)展心理學(xué)是研究種系和個(gè)體心理發(fā)生與發(fā)展的科學(xué)是研究種系和個(gè)體心理發(fā)生與發(fā)展的科學(xué)包含心理的種系發(fā)展（比較心理學(xué)包含心理的種系發(fā)展（比較心理學(xué)/動(dòng)物心理學(xué)）、心理的種族動(dòng)物心理學(xué)）、心理的種族發(fā)展（民族心理學(xué)）和個(gè)體心理發(fā)展（個(gè)體發(fā)展心理學(xué)）。發(fā)展（民族心理學(xué)）和個(gè)體心理發(fā)展（個(gè)體發(fā)展心理學(xué)）。狹義發(fā)展心理學(xué)狹義發(fā)展心理學(xué)即即個(gè)體發(fā)展心理學(xué)個(gè)體發(fā)展心理學(xué)，是關(guān)于人的個(gè)體從受精卵，是關(guān)于人的個(gè)體從受精卵開(kāi)始到出生、成熟、直至衰老的生命全程中心理發(fā)生、發(fā)展特開(kāi)始到出生、成熟

6、、直至衰老的生命全程中心理發(fā)生、發(fā)展特點(diǎn)和規(guī)律的科學(xué)。點(diǎn)和規(guī)律的科學(xué)。發(fā)展心理學(xué)發(fā)展心理學(xué)發(fā)展心理學(xué)畢生畢生（生命全程）（生命全程）年齡特征年齡特征研究對(duì)象研究對(duì)象研究?jī)?nèi)容研究?jī)?nèi)容二部分二部分四方面四方面感覺(jué)感覺(jué)知覺(jué)知覺(jué)記憶記憶想象想象思維思維興趣興趣動(dòng)機(jī)動(dòng)機(jī)情感情感價(jià)值觀價(jià)值觀自我意識(shí)自我意識(shí)氣質(zhì)氣質(zhì)性格性格社會(huì)生活社會(huì)生活教育條件教育條件生理因素生理因素動(dòng)作活動(dòng)動(dòng)作活動(dòng)發(fā)展發(fā)展言語(yǔ)發(fā)展言語(yǔ)發(fā)展認(rèn)知認(rèn)知社會(huì)性社會(huì)性質(zhì)的特征質(zhì)的特征智力活動(dòng)智力活動(dòng)人格人格先天后天先天后天外因內(nèi)因外因內(nèi)因階段連續(xù)階段連續(xù)青青春春期期胎胎兒兒受精卵受精卵出生出生 成熟成熟 衰老衰老嬰嬰兒兒期期童童年年期期青青年年

7、期期中中年年期期老老年年期期幼幼兒兒期期個(gè)體發(fā)展心理學(xué)個(gè)體發(fā)展心理學(xué)（狹義狹義）基本原理基本原理三、種系發(fā)展與個(gè)體發(fā)展三、種系發(fā)展與個(gè)體發(fā)展種系發(fā)展種系發(fā)展（廣義廣義）種族發(fā)展種族發(fā)展個(gè)體心理發(fā)展個(gè)體心理發(fā)展（狹義狹義）動(dòng)物動(dòng)物人類(lèi)人類(lèi)動(dòng)物動(dòng)物/ /比較比較心理學(xué)心理學(xué)民族民族心理學(xué)心理學(xué)個(gè)體發(fā)展心理學(xué)個(gè)體發(fā)展心理學(xué)什么東西早上是四條腿，到了中午是兩條腿，當(dāng)太陽(yáng)什么東西早上是四條腿，到了中午是兩條腿，當(dāng)太陽(yáng)落山時(shí)又變?yōu)槿龡l腿？落山時(shí)又變?yōu)槿龡l腿？斯芬克斯之謎斯芬克斯之謎個(gè)體心理發(fā)展與種系心理發(fā)展的關(guān)系l個(gè)體發(fā)展與種系心理發(fā)展的理論，最有代表性的還是個(gè)體發(fā)展與種系心理發(fā)展的理論，最有代表性的還是

8、20世紀(jì)初霍爾（世紀(jì)初霍爾（G.S.Hall.1844-1924）的復(fù)演說(shuō)。）的復(fù)演說(shuō)。l帶了帶了81位博士生，三分之一是大學(xué)校長(zhǎng)或是國(guó)際上有位博士生，三分之一是大學(xué)校長(zhǎng)或是國(guó)際上有名的心理學(xué)家，如杜威、卡特爾名的心理學(xué)家，如杜威、卡特爾主要觀點(diǎn)：主要觀點(diǎn)：“兒童乃成人之父兒童乃成人之父”。l個(gè)體的發(fā)育和發(fā)展是種系發(fā)生的各主要階段的再現(xiàn)。l1、胎兒在胎內(nèi)的發(fā)展復(fù)演了動(dòng)物的進(jìn)化過(guò)程。l2、兒童和青少年時(shí)期的心理發(fā)展復(fù)演了人類(lèi)進(jìn)化過(guò) 程 階段：乳兒期復(fù)演了從動(dòng)物到人的進(jìn)化； 8歲前的兒童復(fù)演著原始人的漁獵時(shí)代； 8-12歲兒童期復(fù)演由蒙昧?xí)r代向文明時(shí)代的過(guò)渡時(shí)期 少年期復(fù)演了中世紀(jì)人類(lèi)的特征； 青

9、年期復(fù)演了近代風(fēng)云變幻的人類(lèi)特征。 青年期復(fù)演著人類(lèi)浪漫主義時(shí)代。 l復(fù)演說(shuō)結(jié)構(gòu)圖動(dòng) 物 原始人 現(xiàn)代人胎 兒 出 生 成 熟評(píng)論評(píng)論 錯(cuò)誤：引向生物決定論錯(cuò)誤：引向生物決定論（3）評(píng)價(jià)）評(píng)價(jià) 霍爾的復(fù)演說(shuō)引起了心理霍爾的復(fù)演說(shuō)引起了心理學(xué)界很大爭(zhēng)議，我們應(yīng)用辯證學(xué)界很大爭(zhēng)議，我們應(yīng)用辯證的眼光來(lái)評(píng)價(jià)它。復(fù)演說(shuō)有其的眼光來(lái)評(píng)價(jià)它。復(fù)演說(shuō)有其正確的一面，因?yàn)槲覀冊(cè)趥€(gè)體正確的一面，因?yàn)槲覀冊(cè)趥€(gè)體心理發(fā)展的過(guò)程中確實(shí)看到了心理發(fā)展的過(guò)程中確實(shí)看到了一些返祖現(xiàn)象。但是復(fù)演說(shuō)的一些返祖現(xiàn)象。但是復(fù)演說(shuō)的錯(cuò)誤在于把個(gè)體發(fā)展與種系發(fā)錯(cuò)誤在于把個(gè)體發(fā)展與種系發(fā)展完全等同起來(lái)，從而引向了展完全等同起來(lái)，從而引向

10、了生物決定論。生物決定論。 第三節(jié) 兒童發(fā)展研究方法 一、觀察法：觀察者通過(guò)自己的感官或儀器，對(duì)兒童的心一、觀察法：觀察者通過(guò)自己的感官或儀器，對(duì)兒童的心理和行為變化進(jìn)行有目的、有計(jì)劃的觀察。理和行為變化進(jìn)行有目的、有計(jì)劃的觀察。（一）長(zhǎng)期觀察和定期觀察（一）長(zhǎng)期觀察和定期觀察長(zhǎng)期觀察長(zhǎng)期觀察定期觀察定期觀察（二）全面觀察和重點(diǎn)觀察（二）全面觀察和重點(diǎn)觀察全面觀察全面觀察重點(diǎn)觀察重點(diǎn)觀察優(yōu)點(diǎn)：現(xiàn)場(chǎng)觀察，資料更客觀、全面、準(zhǔn)確優(yōu)點(diǎn)：現(xiàn)場(chǎng)觀察，資料更客觀、全面、準(zhǔn)確缺點(diǎn)：觀察質(zhì)量的高低決定于觀察者本人的專(zhuān)業(yè)水平缺點(diǎn)：觀察質(zhì)量的高低決定于觀察者本人的專(zhuān)業(yè)水平第三節(jié)第三節(jié) 發(fā)展心理學(xué)的主要研究方法發(fā)展

11、心理學(xué)的主要研究方法認(rèn)人為父的小鵝二、訪談法二、訪談法訪談法：研究者通過(guò)與兒童進(jìn)行口頭交談，了解和搜集有訪談法：研究者通過(guò)與兒童進(jìn)行口頭交談，了解和搜集有關(guān)心理特征資料的方法。關(guān)心理特征資料的方法。訪談法在兒童心理學(xué)研究中具有重要意義和作用。訪談法在兒童心理學(xué)研究中具有重要意義和作用。根據(jù)訪談內(nèi)容和過(guò)程是否有統(tǒng)一要求和結(jié)構(gòu)：結(jié)構(gòu)訪談、根據(jù)訪談內(nèi)容和過(guò)程是否有統(tǒng)一要求和結(jié)構(gòu)：結(jié)構(gòu)訪談、非結(jié)構(gòu)訪談非結(jié)構(gòu)訪談根據(jù)是否借助一定的中介物：直接訪談和間接訪談根據(jù)是否借助一定的中介物：直接訪談和間接訪談優(yōu)點(diǎn)：較針對(duì)性地收集證據(jù)，情境自然優(yōu)點(diǎn)：較針對(duì)性地收集證據(jù)，情境自然缺點(diǎn)：訪談結(jié)果的準(zhǔn)確性和有效性受到訪談

12、者自身?xiàng)l件的缺點(diǎn)：訪談結(jié)果的準(zhǔn)確性和有效性受到訪談?wù)咦陨項(xiàng)l件的限制，費(fèi)時(shí)多，對(duì)訪談結(jié)果進(jìn)行量化的難度也較大限制，費(fèi)時(shí)多，對(duì)訪談結(jié)果進(jìn)行量化的難度也較大三、問(wèn)卷法三、問(wèn)卷法 是研究者用同一設(shè)計(jì)的問(wèn)卷來(lái)搜集兒童心理和行為是研究者用同一設(shè)計(jì)的問(wèn)卷來(lái)搜集兒童心理和行為資料的方法資料的方法l問(wèn)題是問(wèn)卷的核心。問(wèn)題是問(wèn)卷的核心。優(yōu)點(diǎn)：更具目的性，內(nèi)容更加完整，設(shè)計(jì)更加嚴(yán)密，標(biāo)優(yōu)點(diǎn)：更具目的性，內(nèi)容更加完整，設(shè)計(jì)更加嚴(yán)密，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化程度較高，可以在短時(shí)間內(nèi)搜集到大量的資料，準(zhǔn)化程度較高，可以在短時(shí)間內(nèi)搜集到大量的資料，所得數(shù)據(jù)也便于定量分析。所得數(shù)據(jù)也便于定量分析。缺點(diǎn)：?jiǎn)柧碓O(shè)計(jì)最關(guān)鍵。如果不當(dāng)，會(huì)達(dá)不到預(yù)期效

13、果缺點(diǎn)：?jiǎn)柧碓O(shè)計(jì)最關(guān)鍵。如果不當(dāng)，會(huì)達(dá)不到預(yù)期效果，對(duì)被試有書(shū)面語(yǔ)能力的要求。，對(duì)被試有書(shū)面語(yǔ)能力的要求。四、測(cè)驗(yàn)法四、測(cè)驗(yàn)法測(cè)驗(yàn)法：通過(guò)測(cè)驗(yàn)量表來(lái)測(cè)查兒童心理發(fā)展特點(diǎn)和規(guī)律測(cè)驗(yàn)法：通過(guò)測(cè)驗(yàn)量表來(lái)測(cè)查兒童心理發(fā)展特點(diǎn)和規(guī)律的方法。編制測(cè)驗(yàn)量表需要經(jīng)過(guò)編制測(cè)驗(yàn)題目、預(yù)測(cè)的方法。編制測(cè)驗(yàn)量表需要經(jīng)過(guò)編制測(cè)驗(yàn)題目、預(yù)測(cè)、項(xiàng)目分析、合成測(cè)驗(yàn)、取得信度和效度資料，建立、項(xiàng)目分析、合成測(cè)驗(yàn)、取得信度和效度資料，建立常模等標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化過(guò)程。應(yīng)用經(jīng)過(guò)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化測(cè)驗(yàn)量表進(jìn)行測(cè)常模等標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化過(guò)程。應(yīng)用經(jīng)過(guò)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化測(cè)驗(yàn)量表進(jìn)行測(cè)量，將其得分與常模分?jǐn)?shù)進(jìn)行比較，就可以清楚地了量，將其得分與常模分?jǐn)?shù)進(jìn)行比較，就可以清楚地了解兒童在某

14、方面的發(fā)展水平。解兒童在某方面的發(fā)展水平。如中國(guó)比內(nèi)測(cè)驗(yàn)、韋克斯勒智力量表、瑞文測(cè)驗(yàn)，卡特如中國(guó)比內(nèi)測(cè)驗(yàn)、韋克斯勒智力量表、瑞文測(cè)驗(yàn)，卡特爾爾1616項(xiàng)人格因素量表。項(xiàng)人格因素量表。優(yōu)點(diǎn)：測(cè)驗(yàn)量表的編制嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，結(jié)果處理方便，由于一些優(yōu)點(diǎn)：測(cè)驗(yàn)量表的編制嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，結(jié)果處理方便，由于一些常模的存在，可以直接進(jìn)行對(duì)比研究。常模的存在，可以直接進(jìn)行對(duì)比研究。缺點(diǎn)：受被試口頭語(yǔ)言和書(shū)面語(yǔ)言能力的限制，不能用缺點(diǎn)：受被試口頭語(yǔ)言和書(shū)面語(yǔ)言能力的限制，不能用于測(cè)差低幼兒童。于測(cè)差低幼兒童。瑞文測(cè)驗(yàn)瑞文智力測(cè)驗(yàn)畫(huà)樹(shù)測(cè)驗(yàn)畫(huà)人測(cè)驗(yàn)五、實(shí)驗(yàn)法五、實(shí)驗(yàn)法實(shí)驗(yàn)法：通過(guò)創(chuàng)設(shè)一定的情境，操縱和控制某些實(shí)驗(yàn)變量實(shí)驗(yàn)法：通過(guò)創(chuàng)設(shè)一定

15、的情境，操縱和控制某些實(shí)驗(yàn)變量，來(lái)探討兒童心理發(fā)展的原因和規(guī)律的方法。，來(lái)探討兒童心理發(fā)展的原因和規(guī)律的方法。（一）實(shí)驗(yàn)室實(shí)驗(yàn)：是在專(zhuān)門(mén)的實(shí)驗(yàn)室內(nèi)，利用專(zhuān)門(mén)的儀（一）實(shí)驗(yàn)室實(shí)驗(yàn)：是在專(zhuān)門(mén)的實(shí)驗(yàn)室內(nèi)，利用專(zhuān)門(mén)的儀器和設(shè)備，對(duì)兒童的心理發(fā)展所進(jìn)行的研究，關(guān)于兒童器和設(shè)備，對(duì)兒童的心理發(fā)展所進(jìn)行的研究，關(guān)于兒童的各種認(rèn)知能力，如感覺(jué)、知覺(jué)、已憶、思維等心理過(guò)的各種認(rèn)知能力，如感覺(jué)、知覺(jué)、已憶、思維等心理過(guò)程多用實(shí)驗(yàn)室方法進(jìn)行。程多用實(shí)驗(yàn)室方法進(jìn)行。如對(duì)嬰兒顏色知覺(jué)的研究如對(duì)嬰兒顏色知覺(jué)的研究被試：被試：3 3、4 4個(gè)月的嬰兒個(gè)月的嬰兒過(guò)程：過(guò)程：l對(duì)對(duì)480480毫微米藍(lán)波形成習(xí)慣化；毫微米藍(lán)波形

16、成習(xí)慣化；l呈現(xiàn)呈現(xiàn)450450毫微米藍(lán)色毫微米藍(lán)色510510毫微米綠色毫微米綠色結(jié)果：嬰兒對(duì)綠色表現(xiàn)出去習(xí)慣化，但對(duì)藍(lán)波沒(méi)有。結(jié)果：嬰兒對(duì)綠色表現(xiàn)出去習(xí)慣化，但對(duì)藍(lán)波沒(méi)有。結(jié)論：嬰兒和成人一樣，是按顏色的不同類(lèi)別做出反應(yīng)的結(jié)論：嬰兒和成人一樣，是按顏色的不同類(lèi)別做出反應(yīng)的。優(yōu)點(diǎn)：能夠嚴(yán)格地控制和操縱變量，揭示變量間的因果關(guān)優(yōu)點(diǎn)：能夠嚴(yán)格地控制和操縱變量，揭示變量間的因果關(guān)系；對(duì)實(shí)驗(yàn)過(guò)程和結(jié)果的記錄客觀、準(zhǔn)確，利于定量系；對(duì)實(shí)驗(yàn)過(guò)程和結(jié)果的記錄客觀、準(zhǔn)確，利于定量分析，這就在很大程度上提高了研究的科學(xué)性。分析，這就在很大程度上提高了研究的科學(xué)性。局限：與兒童的實(shí)際生活相脫節(jié)，使兒童的表現(xiàn)易帶

17、上非局限：與兒童的實(shí)際生活相脫節(jié)，使兒童的表現(xiàn)易帶上非自然性色彩。自然性色彩。（二）現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)：是在現(xiàn)實(shí)的真實(shí)環(huán)境中，對(duì)兒童心理發(fā)（二）現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)：是在現(xiàn)實(shí)的真實(shí)環(huán)境中，對(duì)兒童心理發(fā)展?fàn)顩r所進(jìn)行的研究。現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)的整體實(shí)驗(yàn)情景是自然展?fàn)顩r所進(jìn)行的研究?，F(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)的整體實(shí)驗(yàn)情景是自然的，但又對(duì)某些因素進(jìn)行了有目的、有計(jì)劃的控制。的，但又對(duì)某些因素進(jìn)行了有目的、有計(jì)劃的控制。優(yōu)點(diǎn)：保證了研究具有較高的內(nèi)部和外部效度。優(yōu)點(diǎn)：保證了研究具有較高的內(nèi)部和外部效度。局限：由于這種研究在環(huán)境上的開(kāi)放性，因而很難對(duì)有些局限：由于這種研究在環(huán)境上的開(kāi)放性，因而很難對(duì)有些無(wú)關(guān)變量進(jìn)行很理想的控制，樣本的代表性也不易控制無(wú)

18、關(guān)變量進(jìn)行很理想的控制，樣本的代表性也不易控制在具體的研究中，究竟采用實(shí)驗(yàn)室實(shí)驗(yàn)還是采用現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)在具體的研究中，究竟采用實(shí)驗(yàn)室實(shí)驗(yàn)還是采用現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)，要根據(jù)研究的具體目的來(lái)決定：對(duì)那些不易受場(chǎng)景影，要根據(jù)研究的具體目的來(lái)決定：對(duì)那些不易受場(chǎng)景影響，又需要對(duì)其過(guò)程進(jìn)行嚴(yán)密控制的心理過(guò)程，用實(shí)驗(yàn)響，又需要對(duì)其過(guò)程進(jìn)行嚴(yán)密控制的心理過(guò)程，用實(shí)驗(yàn)室實(shí)驗(yàn)的方式比較好；對(duì)于兒童的某些社會(huì)行為的研究室實(shí)驗(yàn)的方式比較好；對(duì)于兒童的某些社會(huì)行為的研究應(yīng)用現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)法更合適。應(yīng)用現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)法更合適。羅森塔爾效應(yīng)48InfluenceslAttitudes and beliefs of the culture, and

19、sub-culture and family units we come fromlAll these shape our image of the child, just as they shape the work of the major theoristslOur beliefs will influence what we might find useful from different theorists49Images of the childDo view children as:lSeekers of knowledge ORlEmpty vessels for us to

20、pour knowledge into?Do you view babies as:lPeople seeking relationships OR lPeople who need to be taught to relate5051lOur image of the child in our culture helps us to form these answers lIt is important to be aware of the images we work withlRe-examination of your view of the child keeps these ima

21、ges relevant and open to change throughout our professional careers52lDo you value knowledge gained through group work more (or less) than knowledge gained alone?Why?53Main groups of theorieslMaturationist A Gessell, N ChomskylBehaviourist B Skinner, J Watson, I PavlovlDevelopmental Interactionists

22、U Bronfenbrenner, J Piaget, L Vygostky54Which TheoryWhich Theory?In assessing theories ask yourself:lHow does this theory explain behaviour?lHow does this theory help me to predict behaviour?lHow will this theory assist me in a practical situation?55Throughout this unit you will study four main theo

23、rists:lMaslowlPiagetlVygotskylErikson56MaslowlAbraham Maslow developed a theory based on basic needs. He believed:lthat people generally have the same basic needs.lthat in order to thrive and develop we need to meet these needslthat the need to grow and develop, to strive for improvement is within a

24、ll of us Self Actualisation(Self respectApproval)Esteem(Respect, approval)Love &Belonging(Family, Community, Friendship),Safety(security, protection)Physical Needs(Food Sleep Water)57Jean Piaget Theory on Cognitive Development lConstructing KnowledgeSchemataAssimilationAccomodationConcept developmen

25、tConservation58Piagets stages of cognitive developmentlSensori-Motor (0-2 yrs) exploration using senses. Sensory play important (mouthing, sucking, banging, smelling and looking). EgocentriclPre-operational (2 7 yrs) language and imagination to extend thinking and understanding less egocentric59lCon

26、crete operational (7 - 11 yrs) develop skills of thinking logically in a variety of practical or concrete situations. More organised thought (Categories) Logical rather than abstract thinkerslFormal operational (11+years) more abstract arguments and discussions. Broader issues of the world take a mo

27、re important role.60Lev Vygostky Language and Cognitionl“What a child can do in co-operation today, he can do alone tomorrow.” Vygotsky (1967)l Social Constructivist Theoryl Heavier emphasis than Piaget on the importance of social interaction and language in growth of thinking61lLearning is a result

28、 of social contact and interaction with significant and familiar peoplelEmphasised the importance of gestures of the pre-linguistic child body movements show beginnings of symbolic thoughtlAnd importance of inner speech talking through a problem (self talk)62Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)lThe ZP

29、D is about can do with help, not as a permanent state but as a stage towards being able to do something on your own. The key to stretching the learner is to know what is in that persons ZPDwhat comes next, for them.lScaffolding adding knowledge and understanding.63Erik EriksonPsychosocial TheorylFoc

30、us on social and emotional development l Influenced by Freudian theorylHe believed thatlPeople generally have the same basic needslOur personality develops and changes in response to these needslDevelopment proceeds in stages that match biological lifespan stageslEach stage is characterised by a cri

31、sis social expectationslMotivation to meet these challenges will vary from stage to stage 64Eriksons stages(8 stages in all only 4 outlined here)1: Trust vs Mistrust (infancy) “will I trust the world?” Infant develops primary then secondary attachments.Infant begins to trust that basic needs will be

32、 met. Development of trust important to future relationships and emotional development.65l2: Autonomy vs shame and doubt (toddlerhood) “can I do this by myself”lToddler seeks approval from adults. Improved self help skills requires support and guidance of carers in order for autonomy to develop.663.

33、 Initiative vs Guilt (preschool years) “Is what I do and think OK?”Child sometimes oversteps limits experience guilt. Child is learning social rules and consequences for breach of rules674. Industry vs Inferiority (school age) “Can I master this skill ?”Learning and using pro-social skills and behav

34、iour.More sure of own abilities and become more independent.Peer acceptance is importantFeelings of inferiority are common as child seeks acceptance and approval self esteem lowers during middle childhood Jean Piaget Lev VygotskyAbraham Maslow B.F. Skinner Erik Erickson Howard GardnerWhy Study Child

35、 & Parenting Development Theories?Theories help people:Organize their ideas about raising children.Understand influences on parenting.Discover more than one way to interact with children.Analyze the benefits and consequences of using more than one theory.Why Study the Selected Theories?The selected

36、theories:Have been popular and influential.Represent different approaches to parent-child interaction.Offer help in the “real world” of daily child-rearing.Make good common sense.Lev Vygotsky - 1896-1934Main pointslDevelopment is primarily driven by language, social context and adult guidance.Key Wo

37、rdslZone of proximal developmentlScaffoldingThe cultures in which children are raised and the ways in which they interact with people influence their intellectual development. From their cultural environments, children learn values, beliefs, skills, and traditions that they will eventually pass on t

38、o their own children. Through cooperative play, children learn to behave according to the rules of their cultures. Learning is an active process. Learning is constructed.What is: Zone of Proximal DevelopmentIt is a range of tasks that a child cannot yet do alone but can accomplish when assisted by a

39、 more skilled partner.There is a zone of proximal development for each task. When learners are in the zone, they can benefit from the teachers assistance.Learners develop at different rates so they may differ in their ability to benefit from instructions.What is: ScaffoldingAssistance that allows st

40、udents to complete tasks that they are not able to complete independently.Effective scaffolding is responsive to students needs. In classroom, teachers provide scaffolding by:Breaking content into manageable piecesModeling skillsProvide practice and examples with promptsLetting go when students are

41、readyLife is a series of stages. Each individual must pass through each stage. The way in which a person handles each of these stages affects the persons identity and self-concept. These psychosocial stages are:1. Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year)2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (2 to 3 years)3. Ini

42、tiative vs. guilt (4 to 5 years)4. Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11 years)5. Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18 years)6. Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)7. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)8. Integrity vs. despair (older adulthood)Psychosocial Theory of Human Development Eri

43、k EriksonStageAgeBasicConflict ImportantEvent SummaryOral-sensoryBirth to 12 to 18 months Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding The infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver, or develop a sense of mistrust. Muscular-Anal18 monthsto 3years Autonomy vs.Shame/Doubt Toilet training

44、The childs energies are directed toward the development of physical skill, including walking, grasping, and rectal sphincter control. The child learns control but may develop shame and doubt if not handled well. Locomotor 3 to 6 years Initiative vs.Guilt Independence The child continues to become mo

45、re assertive and to take more initiative, but may be too forceful, leading to guilt feelings. Latency 6 to 12 years Industry vs. Inferiority School The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure and incompetence. Adolescence 12 to 18 years Identity vs. R

46、ole Confusion Peer relationships The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sex roles, politics, and religion. Young Adulthood 19 to 40 years Intimacy vs.Isolation Love relationships The young adult must develop intimate relationships or suffer feelings of isolation. Middle Adultho

47、od 40 to 65 years Generativity vs. Stagnation Parenting Each adult must find some way to satisfy and support the next generation. Maturity 65 to death Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on and acceptance of ones life The culmination is a sense of oneself as one is and of feeling fulfilled. Erikson

48、s Psychosocial Theory of Human DevelopmentAutonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Trust vs. MistrustInitiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Ego Integrity vs. Despair Generativity vs. Stagnation Critique of Erik EriksonlSupporters of this Eriksonian theory, s

49、uggest that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.lOn the other hand, Eriksons theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he

50、suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed.Theory of Behaviorism- B.F Skinner & othersBased on Lockes tabula rasa (“clean slate”) idea, Skinner theorized that a child is an “

51、empty organism” - that is, an empty vessel - waiting to be filled through learning experiences. Any behavior can be changed through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Behaviorism is based on cause-and-effect relationships. Pavlos dog gameMajor elements of behaviorism include:Positive an

52、d negative reinforcementUse of stimulus and responseModelingConditioning.Theory of Multiple Intelligence Howard GardnerHoward Gardners theoryHoward Gardner defines intelligence as the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting (Gardner & Hatch,

53、1989). Using biological as well as cultural research, he formulated a list of seven intelligences. This new outlook on intelligence differs greatly from the traditional view that usually recognizes only two intelligences, verbal and mathematical. Who is Howard Gardner?Who is Howard Gardner? lHoward

54、Gardner is a psychologist and Professor at Harvard Universitys Graduate School of Education. lBased on his study of many people, Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences. lGardner defines intelligence as “ability to solve problems or to create products which are valued in one or more c

55、ultural settings.” lAccording to Gardner, 8 different types of intelligence are displayed by humans. Gardners Intelligences:Logical-Mathematical Logical-Mathematical IntelligenceIntelligence consists of the ability to:ldetect patterns lreason deductively lthink logically This intelligence is most of

56、ten associated with scientific and mathematical thinking. Famous examples: Albert Einstein, John Dewey. Linguistic Intelligence linvolves having lThis intelligence includes to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. lIt also allows one to use information. Famous examples: Charles Dickens, Abraha

57、m Lincoln, T.S. Eliot, Sir Winston Churchill. Spatial IntelligenceSpatial Intelligence lgives one the ability to manipulate gives one the ability to manipulate and and create mental imagescreate mental images in order to in order to solve problems.solve problems. lThis intelligence is This intellige

58、nce is not limited to not limited to visual domains-visual domains-Gardner notes that -Gardner notes that spatial intelligence is also formed in spatial intelligence is also formed in blind children.blind children. Famous examples: Picasso, Frank Lloyd Wright Musical Intelligence lencompasses the ca

59、pability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. (Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to pitch and tone, but these functions would not be needed for the knowledge of rhythm.) Famous examples: Mozart, Leonard Bernstein, Ray Charl

60、es. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence lis the ability to use ones mental abilities to coordinate ones own bodily movements. lThis intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activity are unrelated. lThe ability to use your body skillfully to solve problems, create products or p