2022年生產(chǎn)和企業(yè)組織課件

1、生產(chǎn)和企業(yè)組織第6章生產(chǎn)理論和邊際產(chǎn)品6.1生產(chǎn)系統(tǒng)FirmsLaborCapitalResourceGood1Service1GoodnServicen3生產(chǎn)函數(shù)The production function specifies the maximum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputs.It is defined for a given state of engineering and technical knowledge.It looks like this:Q = F(K, L, R)4Q= F(K,

2、L,R)Q is the quantity of some products you want to produce.K is the capital or plant and equipment that you will need for the production.L is the number of employees or quantity of labor.R is a catch-all (包括所有的) term for other things like raw materials (原料) and energy. F is the state of the current

3、technology. 5專業(yè)術語The production function specifies the maximum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputs for a given state of engineering and technical knowledge.要點：給定投入時的各個可能的產(chǎn)量中最大的產(chǎn)量。在給定的工程和技術知識條件下。6總產(chǎn)量和平均產(chǎn)量Total product designates the total amount of output produced in physical

4、units.Average product equals total product divided by total units of input.說明：平均產(chǎn)量通常是指某一種投入要素的平均產(chǎn)量。7邊際產(chǎn)量The marginal product (邊際產(chǎn)量) of an input such as labor is the extra output added by 1 extra unit of that input while other inputs are hold constant. 其他要素保持不變，一種投入要素增加一單位，帶來的產(chǎn)出的增加量。8邊際產(chǎn)量圖示FirmQ+MPAd

5、d 1 unit of some input and hold other inputs constantThe MP is extra output.KLR+19最大產(chǎn)出勞動的邊際產(chǎn)量的含義是：投入 N+1 單位勞動時的最大產(chǎn)量與投入 N 單位勞動時的最大產(chǎn)量之差。增加 1 單位勞動后，所有的分工都要按最優(yōu)方式重新安排，然后得出投入 N+1 勞動的產(chǎn)出水平。104000300020001000300020001000 0 1 2 34 5 1 2 34 5LaborLaborMarginal product (per unit of labor)Total product11報酬遞減定律Un

6、der the law of diminishing returns, a firm will get less and less extra output when it adds additional units of an input while holding other inputs fixed. In other words, the marginal product of each unit of input will decline as the amount of that input increases, holding all other inputs constant.

7、1213Units of laborTotal productMarginal productAverage product0012000200023000150033500116743800950539007802000100050030010014邊際產(chǎn)量和總產(chǎn)量的關系產(chǎn)量勞動力總產(chǎn)量加速上升邊際產(chǎn)量最大時，總產(chǎn)量上升最快?？偖a(chǎn)量邊際產(chǎn)量總產(chǎn)量下降總產(chǎn)量減速上升邊際產(chǎn)量為0時，總產(chǎn)量最大。15平均產(chǎn)量和總產(chǎn)量的關系產(chǎn)量勞動力平均產(chǎn)量增大平均產(chǎn)量最大階段總產(chǎn)量平均產(chǎn)量總產(chǎn)量下降階段階段平均產(chǎn)量減小16生產(chǎn)的比例性生產(chǎn)要求投入多種要素，而且要素之間通常有一定的比例性要求。有些生產(chǎn)要求投入要素之

8、間的比例性高一些，有些則要求低一些。例如，工業(yè)生產(chǎn)的比例性要求資本一般高一點，農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)的比例性要求資本低一點。正是要素投入的比例性要求，形成一種要素的報酬遞減現(xiàn)象。17實際的報酬遞減定律當其他的投入固定，而一種投入的數(shù)量由 0 逐步增加時，邊際產(chǎn)量開始可能遞增，但遲早遞減。OMarginal productQuantity of labor18說明我們在計算一種要素的邊際產(chǎn)品時，利用“投入 N+1 單位要素時的最大產(chǎn)量與投入 N 單位要素時的最大產(chǎn)量之差”來衡量。對于勞動而言，較多的人數(shù)可以形成更好的分工模式，對于資本而言，較多的資本可以使用更有效的生產(chǎn)方法，因此，可能使邊際產(chǎn)品存在遞增階段。

9、19規(guī)模報酬問題What would happen to wheat production if land, labor, water, and other inputs were increased by the same proportion (比例)? These questions refer to the returns to scale (規(guī)模報酬).20FirmKLRQ規(guī)模報酬圖示aKaLaRbQa 1 ?a ba ba = b21規(guī)模報酬的三種情形There are three important cases of returns to scale: Constant retu

10、rns to scale (規(guī)模報酬不變), Increasing returns to scale (規(guī)模報酬遞增), Decreasing returns to scale (規(guī)模報酬遞減). 22規(guī)模報酬不變Constant returns to scale denote a case where a change in all inputs leads to a proportional (成比例的) change in output.手工藝行業(yè)往往具有規(guī)模報酬不變性。a = bFirmKLRQaKaLaRbQ23規(guī)模報酬遞增Increasing returns to scale (a

11、lso called economies of scale ) arise when an increase in all inputs leads to a more-than-proportional increase in the level of output.化工企業(yè)往往具有規(guī)模報酬遞增性。a bFirmKLRQaKaLaRbQ26導致規(guī)模報酬遞減的原因Causes of diseconomies (不經(jīng)濟) of scale: plant may get too big for effective management; workers may begin to feel alie

12、nated (疏遠的) from their jobs.管理活動自身一般隨著規(guī)模增大而效率遞減，當管理因素的份額較大時，將顯現(xiàn)規(guī)模報酬遞減性。27范圍經(jīng)濟性Economies of scope occur when a number of different products can be produced more efficiently together than apart.大炮面包產(chǎn)品轉(zhuǎn)換曲線生產(chǎn)大炮和面包的規(guī)模收益不變28范圍經(jīng)濟性說明大炮面包產(chǎn)品轉(zhuǎn)換曲線面包數(shù)量大炮數(shù)量保持面包數(shù)量不變，可以生產(chǎn)更多的大炮。保持大炮數(shù)量不變，可以生產(chǎn)更多的面包。29短期和長期We define th

13、e short run (短期) as a period in which firms can adjust production by changing variable factors (可變要素) such as materials and labor but cannot change fixed factors (固定要素) such as capital.The long run (長期) is a period sufficiently long so that all factors including capital can be adjusted.30“短期和長期”的說明經(jīng)

14、濟學意義上的短期和長期不是以時間長短劃分的。當一個農(nóng)戶的土地面積給定時，他的經(jīng)營就是短期的。如果他每半年就可以重新決定租用多少土地，那么半年以上的時間對他來說就是長期的。對于一個汽車制造廠，如果在三年的時間里無法建設新的生產(chǎn)流水線，那么三年的時間對它來說就屬于短期生產(chǎn)。31短期分析和長期分析短期分析通?？紤]某一種要素的數(shù)量變化對于產(chǎn)出的影響。例如，勞動的邊際產(chǎn)量和平均產(chǎn)量等。長期分析通?？紤]所有要素的數(shù)量變化對于產(chǎn)出的影響。例如，規(guī)模報酬現(xiàn)象。32技術變革Technological change refers to in the processes for producing goods an

15、d services, changes in old products, or introduction of new products.Process innovation (工藝創(chuàng)新): new engineering knowledge improves production techniques for existing products.Product innovation (產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新): new or improved products are introduced in the marketplace.33技術變革改變生產(chǎn)函數(shù)1995 Technology2005 Technol

16、ogyInputTotal productTechnological change shifts production function upward.3435背景知識技術進步的機制：是計劃經(jīng)濟還是市場經(jīng)濟具有優(yōu)勢？在社會產(chǎn)品結構簡單的歷史條件下，計劃經(jīng)濟具有一定的優(yōu)勢，但具有較大的政治風險。在產(chǎn)品多樣化而且更新更替速度加快的歷史條件下，市場經(jīng)濟具有明顯的優(yōu)勢。36總量生產(chǎn)函數(shù)Q is the total output; K is the capital; L is the labor.The famous Cobb-Douglas production function:Q = F(K, L

17、)Y=AK0.25L1-0.2537C-D 生產(chǎn)函數(shù)的規(guī)模收益Y=AK0.25L1-0.25A(2K)0.25(2L)1-0.25=2YA(1.01K)0.25L1-0.251.0025YAK0.25(1.01L)1-0.251.0075Y38生產(chǎn)力的測定We can use the aggregate production function to measure a countrys productivity and technological change.In measuring productivity, we denote labor productivity as the amou

18、nt of output per unit of labor; capital productivity as output per unit of capital; and total factor productivity (全要素生產(chǎn)力) as output per unit of total inputs of capital and labor.39美國的經(jīng)驗數(shù)據(jù)Total factor productivity has been increasing throughout (貫穿) this century.The capital stock (資本存量) has been gro

19、wing faster than the number of work-hours.Capitals rate of return has remained about the same.In the last two decades, all measures of productivity have shown a marked growth slowdown (減速).40技術進步貢獻的測定從宏觀的角度來說，可以認為生產(chǎn)具有規(guī)模報酬不變的特征。假如一國生產(chǎn)可以用Y=AK0.25L0.75描述，如果勞動數(shù)量增長了2%，資本數(shù)量增長了5%，那么應該導致產(chǎn)量增長：A(1.05K)0.25(1.

20、02L)0.751.0274AK0.25L0.75當經(jīng)濟實際增長4%時，若沒有其他因素影響，那么技術進步的貢獻為4%2.74%1.26%41企業(yè)組織6.2企業(yè)的本質(zhì)Why does production generally take place in firms:Production is organized in firms because of economies of specialization;To raise resources for large-scale production;To manage and coordinate the production process.43

21、三種企業(yè)組織形式The Individual Proprietorship (個人所有制)The partnership (合伙制)The Corporation (公司制)關于企業(yè)的見解4445現(xiàn)代公司的核心特征The ownership (所有權) of a corporation is determined by the ownership of the companys common stock (普通股票).In principle, the shareholders (股東) control the companies they own.The corporations manag

22、ers and directors (董事) have the legal power to make decisions for the corporation.46公司制的利弊The corporation may have perpetual (永久的) succession (連續(xù)性) or existence.The corporations managers can make decisions quickly.Corporate stockholders enjoy limited liability (有限責任).Corporate income is doubly taxed

23、 (雙重征稅).47大公司的必要性Efficient production often requires large-scale enterprises, which need billions of dollars of invested capital. Corporations, with limited liability and a convenient management structure, can attract large supplies of private capital, produce a variety of related products, and pool

24、 investor risks.48所有權與經(jīng)營權分離Because the stock of large companies is so widely dispersed, ownership is typically divorced from control. Individual owners cannot easily affect the actions of large corporations.49大公司的所有權與經(jīng)營權分離1996年， AT&T（美國電話電報公司）有230多萬股東。由于大公司的股票過度分散化，由此導致所有權與經(jīng)營權的分離。所有權與經(jīng)營權5051對于經(jīng)營者過高收

25、入的批評Critics answer that the most important reason for the trend is the divorce of ownership from control. This is the symptom (癥狀) of a malady (弊端) known as the principal-agent problem (委托-代理問題), wherein the incentives of the agents (the managers) are not appropriately aligned with the interests of the principal (the owners).52背景知識公司組織要點：1. 所有權利用組織制度控制經(jīng)營者；2. 賦予權利必予以監(jiān)督；3. 將激勵機制建立在經(jīng)營者關心個人利益的基礎上。53現(xiàn)代公司制度的制約機制利用組織機構來保證股東的利