語言學名詞解釋和簡答題的出題范圍

1、wordsthatdifferinonlyonesoundTheydifferinmeaning,theydifferonlyinonesoundsegment,thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentExample:beat,bitTheyformaminimalpairSo/ea/and/i/aredifferentsoundsinEnglishTheyaredifferentphonemestheSapir-WhorfHypothesislinguisticdeterminism（語言決定論）-Languagedeterminesthough

2、t.andlinguisticrelativity語言相對論）-Thereisnolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages.BehaviorismBehaviorisminlinguisticsholdstheviewthatChildrenlearnlanguagethroughachainofstimulus-response-reinforcement（刺激反應強化）,andadultsuseoflanguageisalsoaprocessofstimulus-response.discoveryproceduresAgrammarisdiscov

3、eredthroughtheperformingofcertainoperationsonacorpusofdataUniversalGrammarUGconsistsofasetofinnategrammaticalprinciples.Eachprincipleisassociatedwithanumberofparameters.SystemicGrammarItaimstoexplaintheinternalrelationsinlanguageasasystemnetwork,ormeaningpotential.IdeationalMetafunctionTheIdeational

4、Function（ExperientialandLogical）istoconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer.Itisameaningpotential.Itmainlyconsistsof“transitivity”and“voice”.Thisfunctionnotonlyspecifiestheavailableoptionsinmeaningbutalsodeterminesthenatureoftheirstructuralrealisations.Forexample,“Johnbuil

5、tanewhouse”canbeanalysedasaconfigurationofthefunctions（功能配置）:Actor:JohnProcess:Material:Creation:builtGoal:Affected:anewhouseInterpersonalMetafunctionTheINTERPERSONALFUNCTIONembodiesallusesoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelations.Thisincludesthevariouswaysthespeakerentersaspeechsituationandperf

6、ormsaspeechact.basicspeechrolesThemostfundamentaltypesofspeechrolearejusttwo:(i)giving,and(ii)demanding.Cuttingacrossthisbasicdistinctionbetweengivinganddemandingisanotherdistinctionthatrelatestothenatureofthecommoditybeingexchanged.Thismaybeeither(a)goods-&-servicesor(b)information.finiteverbaloper

7、atorsFinitenessisthusexpressedbymeansofaverbaloperatorwhichiseithertemporalormodal.TextualMetafunctionThetextualmetafunctionenablestherealizationoftherelationbetweenlanguageandcontext,makingthelanguageuserproduceatextwhichmatchesthesituation.Itreferstothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretch

8、ofspokenorwrittendiscourseintocoherentandunifiedtextsandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.Itisrealizedbythematicstructure,informationstructureandcohesion.themeandrhemeTheThemeistheelementwhichservesasthepointofdepartureofthemessage.Theremainderofthemessage,thepartinwhichtheThemei

9、sdeveloped,iscalledtheRheme.Asamessagestructure,aclauseconsistsofaThemeaccompaniedbyaRheme.TheThemeisthefirstconstituentoftheclause.AlltherestoftheclauseissimplylabelledtheRhemeexperientialismExperientialismassumesthattheexternalrealityisconstrainedbyouruniquelyhumanexperience.Thepartsofthisexternal

10、realitytowhichwehaveaccessarelargelyconstrainedbytheecologicalnichewehaveadaptedtoandthenatureofourembodiment.Inotherwords,languagedoesnotdirectlyreflecttheworld.Rather,itreflectsouruniquehumanconstrualoftheworld:ourworldviewasitappearstousthroughthelensofourembodiment.Thisviewofrealityhasbeentermed

11、experientialismorexperientialrealismbycognitivelinguistsGeorgeLakoaandMarkJohnson.Experientialrealismacknowledgesthatthereisanexternalrealitythatisreflectedbyconceptsandbylanguage.However,thisrealityismediatedbyouruniquelyhumanexperiencewhichconstrainsthenatureofthisrealityforus.imageschemataAnimage

12、schemaisarecurringstructurewithinourcognitiveprocesseswhichestablishespatternsofunderstandingandreasoning.Imageschemasareformedfromourbodilyinteractions,fromlinguisticexperience,totypetheoryPrototypetheoryisamodeofgradedcategorizationincognitivescience,wheresomemembersofa

13、categoryaremorecentralthanothers.Forexample,whenaskedtogiveanexampleoftheconceptfurniture,chairismorefrequentlycitedthan,say,stool.Prototypetheoryhasalsobeenappliedinlinguistics,aspartofthemappingfromphonologicalstructuretosemantics.二、Directions:Pleaseanswerthefollowingquestions.WhyisSaussurecalled“

14、oneofthefoundersofstructurallinguisticsand“fatherofmodernlinguistics”Hehelpedtosetthestudyofhumanbehavioronanewfooting(basis).Hehelpedtopromotesemiology.HeclarifiedtheformalstrategiesofModernistthoughts.Heattachedimportancetothestudyoftheintimaterelationbetweenlanguageandhumanmind.Whatarethesimilari

15、tiesanddifferencesbetweenSaussureslangueandparoleandChomskyscompetenceandperformanceThesimilarities(1)languageandcompetencemainlyconcernstheusersunderlyingknowledge;paroleandperformanceconcernstheactualphenomena(2)languageandcompetenceareabstract;paroleandperformanceareconcrete.Thedifferences(1)acco

16、rdingtoSaussure,languageisameresystematicinventoryofitems;accordingtoChomsky,competenceshouldrefertotheunderlyingcompetenceasasystemofgenerativeprocesses(2)AccordingtoSaussure,languagemainlybaseonsociology,inseparatinglanguagefromparole,weseparatesocialfromindividual;accordingtoChomsky,competencewas

17、restrictedtoaknowledgeofgrammar.WhatistheconflictbetweendescriptiveadequacyandexplanatoryadequacyAndwhatisChomskyssolutiontothisconflictatheoryofgrammar:descriptivelyadequateshouldadequatelydescribethegrammaticaldadaofalanguage.shouldnotjustfocusonafragmentofalanguage.atheoryofgrammar:explanatorilya

18、dequateshouldexplainthegeneralformoflanguage.shouldchooseamongalternativedescriptively-adequategrammars.shouldessentiallybeabouthowachildacquiresagrammar.Atheoryofgrammarshouldbebothdescriptivelyandexplanatorilyadequate.Butthereisaconflict:ToachieveDA,thegrammarmustbeverydetailed.ToachieveEA,thegram

19、marmustbeverysimple.(thinkwhy)becausethechildcanlearnalanguageveryeasilyonverylittlelanguageexposure.Chomskyssolution:constructasimpleUGletindividualgrammarsbederivablefromUGWhatareChomskyscontributionstothelinguisticrevolutionChomskyscontributiontothelinguisticrevolutionisthatheshowedtheworldatotal

20、lynewwayoflookingatlanguageandathumannature,particularlythehumanmind.Chomskychallengedbehaviorismandempiricismbecausehebelievesthatlanguageisinnate.Rationalism(vs.empiricisminphilosophy)Empiricistevidenceisoftenunreliable.Innateness(vs.behaviorisminpsychology)Childrencanacquireacomplicatedlanguageon

21、thebasisofverylimitedexposuretospeech.ThisindicatesthatUGisinnatefaculty.HowtocompareandcontrastGenerativeLinguisticsandSystemic-FunctionalLinguisticsfromperspectivesofepistemology,theoreticalbasis,researchtasksandmethodologyEpistemology認識論TheoreticalbaseResearchtasksMethodologySFGViewslanguageasapa

22、rtofsocialsystem&studieslanguagefromanthropologic&sociologicalperspectiveMalinowski,stheoryofanthropologyFirth,stheoryofSystem&StructureHjelmslev,stheoryoflanguagelevel&languagesystemschool,sfunctionsentenceperspectiveTorevealhowpeoplemakechoicesthroughmeaningpotentialinthesystemoflanguagetofulfillv

23、ariousfunctionsFocusonwhylanguagepossessessuchstructure1.Fromafunctionalpointofview2.Language-semioticsystemofthreelevelsTGGLanguageisrelatedtophysiologic&psychologicalfeaturesRationalism&mentalism1.Tostudylanguagestructureinform2.Focusonhowlanguageisstructured1.Symbols&formulasinmaths&logic2.Deduct

24、ivemethodologyHowmanyprocesstypesarethereinthetransitivitysystemPleaseillustrateeachtypebyaproperexample.Six.MaterialProcesses,MentalProcesses,RelationalProcesses,BehaviouralProcesses,VerbalProcesses,ExistentialProcessesThetypicaltypesofouterexperienceareactions,goings-onandevents:actionshappen,peop

25、leactonotherpeopleorthings,ormakethingshappen.ThistypeofprocessiscalledMaterialProcesses.Theinnerexperienceisthatinourconsciousnessorimagination.Youmayreactonit,thinkaboutit,orperceiveit.ThistypeofprocessiscalledMentalProcesses.Thenthereisathirdtypeofprocess:welearntogeneralize,torelateonefragmentof

26、experiencetoanother.Itdoesthisbyclassifyingoridentifying.ThiskindofprocessiscalledRelationalProcesses.Thesethreeprocessesarecalledmajorprocesses.Relatedtothemarethreeminorprocesses:eachoneliesattheboundarybetweentwoprocessesofthethree.Notsoclearlysetapart,theysharesomefeaturesofeach,andfinallyacquir

27、ethecharacteroftheirown.OntheborderlinebetweenmaterialandmentalaretheBehaviouralProcesses:thosethatrepresentoutermanifestationsofinnerworkings,theactingoutofprocessesofconsciousnessandphysiologicalstates.OntheborderlineofmentalandrelationalisthecategoryofVerbalProcesses:symbolicrelationshipsconstruc

28、tedinhumanconsciousnessandenactedintheformoflanguage.ThenontheborderlinebetweentherelationalprocessandthematerialprocessareExistentialProcesses,bywhichphenomenaofallkindsarerecognizedtobeortoexist.WhatisamultipleThemetobecontrastedwithasimpleThemeWhatisamarkedThemetobecontrastedwithanunmarkedThemePl

29、easeillustratethemwithproperexamples.ConjunctionsinThemeConjunctiveandmodalAdjunctsinThemeTextual,interpersonalandexperientialelementsinThemeInterrogativesasmultipleThemesunmarkedtheme（無標記主位）:Thesubjectandthemearethesameone.IdeationalMaterialprocessAction/passiveThishousewasbuiltbyJohnSmithGoal:Affe

30、ctedProcess:Material:ActionActor:AgentAnimateInterpersonalDeclarativeMoodResidueSubjectFinitePredicatorAdjunctTextualUnmarkedThemeThemeRhemeGivenNewmarkedtheme（標記主位）:Thesubjectandthemearenotthesame.IdeationalMentalProcess（Cognitive）Suchataleyouwillneverbelieve.PhenomenonSenserProcess:Mental,Cognitiv

31、eInterpersonalDeclarativeNegativeResidueMoodResidueComplementSubjectFinitePredicatorTextualMarkedThemeThemeRhemeNewGivenNewWhatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenconceptualmetaphorandconceptualmetonymyMetaphorandmetonymyareviewedasphenomenafundamentaltothestructureoftheconceptualsystemratherthan

32、superficiallinguisticdevices.Conceptualmetaphor（概念隱喻）mapsstructurefromoneconceptualdomainontoanother,whilemetonomyhighlightsanentitybyreferringtoanotherentitywithinthesamedomain.隱喻就是把一個領域的概念投射到另一個領域，或者說從一個認知域（來源域）投射到另一個認知域（目標域）。轉喻是發(fā)生在同一認知域中的映射，如整體和部分等。ThebasicpremiseofConceptualMetaphorTheoryisthatm

33、etaphorisnotsimplyastylisticfeatureoflanguage,butthatthoughtitselfisfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature.Accordingtothisview,conceptualstructureisorganisedaccordingtocrossdomainmappingsorcorrespondencesbetweenconceptualdomains.Someofthesemappingsareduetopre-conceptualembodiedexperienceswhileothersbuild