翻譯理論知識(shí)

翻譯理論知識(shí)翻譯理論知識(shí)翻譯理論知識(shí)xxx公司翻譯理論知識(shí)文件編號(hào)：文件日期：修訂次數(shù)：第1.0次更改批準(zhǔn)審核制定方案設(shè)計(jì)，管理制度《翻譯理論與實(shí)踐》考試?yán)碚摬糠謴?fù)習(xí)提綱一、翻譯定義：1.張培基——翻譯是用一種語(yǔ)言把另一種語(yǔ)言所表達(dá)的思維內(nèi)容準(zhǔn)確而完整地重新表達(dá)出來(lái)的語(yǔ)言活動(dòng)。3.劉宓慶——翻譯的實(shí)質(zhì)是語(yǔ)際的意義轉(zhuǎn)換。4.王克非——翻譯是將一種語(yǔ)言文字所蘊(yùn)含的意思用另一種語(yǔ)言文字表達(dá)出來(lái)的文化活動(dòng)。5.泰特勒——好的翻譯應(yīng)該是把原作的長(zhǎng)處完全地移注到另一種語(yǔ)言，以使譯入語(yǔ)所屬?lài)?guó)家的本地人能明白地領(lǐng)悟、強(qiáng)烈地感受，如同使用原作語(yǔ)言的人所領(lǐng)悟、所感受的一樣。6.費(fèi)道羅夫——翻譯就是用一種語(yǔ)言把另一種語(yǔ)言在內(nèi)容與形式不可分割的統(tǒng)一中所有已表達(dá)出來(lái)的東西準(zhǔn)確而完全地表達(dá)出來(lái)。7.卡特福德——翻譯的定義也可以這樣說(shuō)：把一種語(yǔ)言（SourceLanguage）中的篇章材料用另一種語(yǔ)言（TargetLanguage）中的篇章材料來(lái)加以代替。8.奈達(dá)——翻譯就是在譯入語(yǔ)中再現(xiàn)與原語(yǔ)信息最切近的自然對(duì)等物，首先就意義而言，其次就是文體而言?！癟ranslatingconsistsinreproducinginthereceptorlanguagetheclosestnaturalequivalentofthesourcelanguagemessage,firstintermsofmeaningandsecondlyintermsofstyle.”---EugeneNida紐馬克——通常（雖然不能說(shuō)總是如此），翻譯就是把一個(gè)文本的意義按作者所想的方式移譯入另一種文字（語(yǔ)言）?！癟ranslationisacraftconsistingintheattempttoreplaceawrittenmessageand/orstatementinonelanguagebythesamemessageand/orstatementinanotherlanguage.”---PeterNewmark10.“Translationistheexpressioninonelanguage(ortargetlanguage譯入語(yǔ))ofwhathasbeenexpressedinanotherlanguage(sourcelanguage原語(yǔ)),preservingsemanticandstylisticequivalences.”---Dubois12.ortranslatingisacommunicativeactivityordynamicprocessinwhichthetranslatormakesgreatefforttothoroughlycomprehendawrittenmessageortextinthesourcelanguageandworksveryhardtoachieveanadequateoranalmostidenticalreproductioninthetargetlanguageversionofthewrittensourcelanguagemessageortext.二、翻譯標(biāo)準(zhǔn)1.翻譯的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)概括為言簡(jiǎn)意賅的四個(gè)字：“忠實(shí)（faithfulness）、通順（smoothness）”。忠實(shí)指的是忠實(shí)于原文。通順指的是譯文的語(yǔ)言必須合乎規(guī)范、通俗易懂。2.嚴(yán)復(fù)對(duì)翻譯曾經(jīng)提出“信（faithfulness）、達(dá)（expressiveness）、雅（elegance）”的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：“譯事三難：信、達(dá)、雅。求其信已大難矣，顧信矣不達(dá)，雖譯猶不譯也，則達(dá)尚焉。”3.“泰特勒三原則”：（1）ThattheTranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideasoftheoriginalwork；（2）Thatthestyleandmannerofwritingshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal；（3）ThattheTranslationshouldhavealltheeaseoforiginalcomposition.”（1）譯作應(yīng)完全復(fù)寫(xiě)出原作的思想；（2）譯作的風(fēng)格和手法應(yīng)和原作屬于同一性質(zhì)；（3）譯作應(yīng)具備原作所具有的通順。”（譚載喜，2006）泰特勒指出，這三項(xiàng)原則是好的翻譯所必備的條件，它們次序的排列是恰當(dāng)?shù)?、自然的，是按重要順序排列的，如果在不得已的情況下要犧牲某一個(gè)原則就要注意到它們的次第和比較上的重要性，決不能顛倒主次，以犧牲思想內(nèi)容的忠實(shí)來(lái)求得譯文的優(yōu)美和流暢。5.奈達(dá)提出了著名的“動(dòng)態(tài)對(duì)等”。他對(duì)翻譯所下的定義:所謂翻譯,是在譯語(yǔ)中用最切近而又最自然的對(duì)等語(yǔ)再現(xiàn)源語(yǔ)的信息,首先是意義,其次是文體。Translatingconsistsinreproducinginthereceptorlanguagetheclosestnaturalequivalentofthesource-languagemessage,firstintermsofmeaningandsecondlyintermsofstyle.(Nida&Taber,1969:12).這一定義明確指出翻譯的本質(zhì)和任務(wù)是用譯語(yǔ)再現(xiàn)源語(yǔ)信息,翻譯的方法用最切近而又最自然的對(duì)等語(yǔ)。6.紐馬克“文本中心”論：紐馬克把要翻譯的對(duì)象看成文本，并根據(jù)語(yǔ)言的功能把文本分為表達(dá)型、信息型和召喚型三大類(lèi)。表達(dá)型包括嚴(yán)肅的文學(xué)作品、聲明和信件等；信息型包括書(shū)籍、報(bào)告、論文、備忘錄等；召喚型包括各種宣傳品、說(shuō)明書(shū)和通俗小說(shuō)等。他認(rèn)為不同的文本應(yīng)該用不同的翻譯方法（紐馬克把翻譯方法分為語(yǔ)義翻譯和交際翻譯兩種。前者強(qiáng)調(diào)忠實(shí)于原作“原作者”；后者強(qiáng)調(diào)忠實(shí)于譯作“讀者”）,不同的評(píng)價(jià)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，不同的“等效”要求。8.其他翻譯標(biāo)準(zhǔn)劉重德：信達(dá)切許淵沖：信達(dá)優(yōu)；美化之藝術(shù)，創(chuàng)優(yōu)似競(jìng)賽；（三美論：意美、音美、形美；等化、深化、淺化；知之、好之、樂(lè)之；發(fā)揮譯入語(yǔ)優(yōu)勢(shì)）傅雷：重神似不重形似錢(qián)鐘書(shū)：化境魯迅：凡是翻譯，必須兼顧兩面：一則當(dāng)然力求其易解，一則保存著原作的豐姿。林語(yǔ)堂：音美、意美、神美、氣美、形美郭沫若：好的翻譯等于創(chuàng)作三、翻譯過(guò)程理解和表達(dá)是翻譯的兩個(gè)主要步驟。譯者對(duì)原文的正確理解在翻譯過(guò)程中至關(guān)重要；譯者的表達(dá)須具有準(zhǔn)確力和表現(xiàn)力，語(yǔ)言須具有生動(dòng)性和形式美。分析原文就是細(xì)致處理詞位的所指意義和聯(lián)想意義、研究句法和語(yǔ)篇結(jié)構(gòu)。理解和領(lǐng)會(huì)原文是從事無(wú)論何種翻譯的基本功力。如果譯者確實(shí)理解了原文的涵義，又能得心應(yīng)手地駕馭譯語(yǔ)，那么翻譯就是一個(gè)很自然的駕輕就熟的過(guò)程。翻譯的過(guò)程可以簡(jiǎn)單分為：理解—表達(dá)---校核三個(gè)階段，或理解---表達(dá)兩個(gè)階段。四、翻譯分類(lèi)：2.從涉及到的符號(hào)來(lái)看，翻譯可分為語(yǔ)內(nèi)翻譯（intralingualtranslation）（通過(guò)同一語(yǔ)言中的一些語(yǔ)言符號(hào)解釋另一些符號(hào)，如把古漢語(yǔ)譯成現(xiàn)代漢語(yǔ)），語(yǔ)際翻譯（interlingualtranslation）（通過(guò)一種語(yǔ)言符號(hào)解釋另一種語(yǔ)言符號(hào)，如把英語(yǔ)譯成漢語(yǔ)），符際翻譯（intersemiotictranslation）（通過(guò)非語(yǔ)言的符號(hào)系統(tǒng)解釋語(yǔ)言符號(hào)或用語(yǔ)言符號(hào)解釋非語(yǔ)言符號(hào)，如用手勢(shì)語(yǔ)解釋一則新聞。）3.從翻譯的手段來(lái)看，翻譯可分為口譯、筆譯和機(jī)器翻譯。4.從翻譯的題材來(lái)看明，翻譯可分為專(zhuān)業(yè)性翻譯（翻譯法律、科技文獻(xiàn)、專(zhuān)業(yè)學(xué)術(shù)論著等）、文學(xué)翻譯（翻譯小說(shuō)、詩(shī)歌、戲劇等文學(xué)作品）和一般性翻譯（翻譯各種應(yīng)用文和新聞報(bào)道等）。5.從翻譯方式上來(lái)看，翻譯可分為全譯、摘譯和編譯。泰特勒（Tytler,1748-1814）的翻譯理論和思想主要見(jiàn)于《論翻譯的原則》一書(shū)。該書(shū)是西方翻譯理論的第一部專(zhuān)著，在書(shū)中，泰特勒提出了著名的翻譯三原則：1、譯文應(yīng)完整地再現(xiàn)原文的思想內(nèi)容(Thatthetranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideasoftheoriginalwork.)；2、譯文的風(fēng)格、筆調(diào)應(yīng)與原文的性質(zhì)相同(Thatthestyleandmannerofwritingshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal.)；3、譯文影響原文一樣流暢(Thatthetranslationshouldhavealltheeaseoftheoriginalcomposition.)。八、常用翻譯方法、策略與技巧1.直譯與意譯（LiteraltranslationandFreetranslation）英語(yǔ)與漢語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)與文體結(jié)構(gòu)有相同的一面，漢譯時(shí)可照譯，即所謂“直譯”——既忠實(shí)原文內(nèi)容，又符合原文的語(yǔ)言與文體結(jié)構(gòu)。由于人們?cè)诟星?，在?duì)客觀事物的感受及社會(huì)經(jīng)歷等方面會(huì)有相似之處，英漢語(yǔ)言表達(dá)中有少量相同或近似的表達(dá)方式，這些表達(dá)方式的字面意義，形象意義相同或近似，隱含意義相同，也就是說(shuō)，這些表達(dá)方式的字面意義和形象意義所傳達(dá)出的文化信息是相同的，可以互譯?！耙庾g”則從意義出發(fā)，只要求將原文大意表達(dá)出來(lái)，不需過(guò)分注重細(xì)節(jié)，但要求譯文自然流暢。由于文化因素的影響，在翻譯時(shí)無(wú)法保留原語(yǔ)的字面意義和形象意義，可將原文的形象更換成另一個(gè)譯文讀者所熟悉的形象，從而轉(zhuǎn)達(dá)出原文的語(yǔ)用目的，譯出隱含意義。英漢兩種語(yǔ)言不同的發(fā)展歷史，民族文化，風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣造成了兩個(gè)民族獨(dú)特的語(yǔ)言與獨(dú)特的表達(dá)方式。因此，翻譯時(shí)必須對(duì)兩種語(yǔ)言文化基礎(chǔ)有基本的認(rèn)識(shí)，不能逐字翻譯。凡語(yǔ)言都有習(xí)慣表達(dá)，言外之意。在深入領(lǐng)會(huì)原作的精神實(shí)質(zhì)的前提之下，不拘泥于原作的字面形式，創(chuàng)造性的表達(dá)原作思想，但不可添枝加葉，改變?cè)鞯娘L(fēng)格。注：在翻譯界通用的方法是將“直譯”與“意譯”相互結(jié)合。任何一篇好的翻譯作品，并不是單純的某一種翻譯方法貫穿始終，而是在保持原文內(nèi)容的準(zhǔn)確性，不引起歧義的情況下，將這兩種翻譯方法在同一翻譯作品中并用，相得益彰。筆者對(duì)翻譯界的這種做法完全認(rèn)同。筆者認(rèn)為，兩種翻譯方法在任何一篇翻譯作品中都能并用的話，一定可以譯出一部?jī)?yōu)秀的翻譯作品。2.歸化和異化（domesticationandforeignization）異化和歸化是在1995年由美國(guó)翻譯理論家勞倫斯·韋努蒂（LawrenceVenuti）在《譯者的隱形》（TheTranslator’sInvisibility）一書(shū)中提出來(lái)的。從歷史上看，異化和歸化可以視為直譯和意譯的概念延伸，但又不完全等同于直譯和意譯。直譯和意譯所關(guān)注的核心問(wèn)題是如何在語(yǔ)言層面處理形式和意義，而異化和歸化則突破了語(yǔ)言因素的局限，將視野擴(kuò)展到語(yǔ)言、文化和美學(xué)等因素。按韋努蒂（Venuti）的說(shuō)法，歸化法是“把原作者帶入譯入語(yǔ)文化”，而異化法則是“接受外語(yǔ)文本的語(yǔ)言及文化差異，把讀者帶入外國(guó)情景”。（Venuti，1995:20）由此可見(jiàn)，直譯和意譯主要是局限于語(yǔ)言層面的價(jià)值取向，異化和歸化則是立足于文化大語(yǔ)境下的價(jià)值取向，兩者之間的差異是顯而易見(jiàn)的，不能混為一談。歸化（domestication）是指在翻譯中采用透明、流暢的風(fēng)格，最大限度地淡化原文的陌生感的翻譯策略（Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:43-44）。它應(yīng)盡可能的使源語(yǔ)文本所反映的世界接近目的語(yǔ)文化讀者的世界，從而達(dá)到源語(yǔ)文化與目的語(yǔ)文化之間的“文化對(duì)等”。異化（foreignization）是指偏離本土主流價(jià)值觀，保留原文的語(yǔ)言和文化差異（Venuti，2001:240）；或指在一定程度上保留原文的異域性，故意打破目標(biāo)語(yǔ)言常規(guī)的翻譯（Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:59）。它主張?jiān)谧g文中保留源語(yǔ)文化，豐富目的語(yǔ)文化和目的語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)言表達(dá)方式。用通俗的語(yǔ)言概括，即歸化法要求譯者向譯語(yǔ)讀者靠攏，采取譯語(yǔ)讀者習(xí)慣的譯語(yǔ)表達(dá)方式，來(lái)傳達(dá)原文的內(nèi)容；異化法則要求譯者向作者靠攏，采取相應(yīng)于作者使用的原語(yǔ)表達(dá)方式，來(lái)傳達(dá)原文的內(nèi)容。注：異化時(shí)不妨礙譯文的通順易懂，歸化時(shí)不失去原文的味道，同時(shí)，我們應(yīng)堅(jiān)持對(duì)語(yǔ)言形式采取歸化的策略，而對(duì)其文化因素進(jìn)行異化處理。這樣，譯文作品可兼兩策略之長(zhǎng)而避其短，使兩者有共同發(fā)展的空間。由此，在實(shí)際翻譯過(guò)程中歸化與異化應(yīng)該是相輔相成，并有互補(bǔ)的辯證統(tǒng)一關(guān)系。翻譯理論知識(shí)概要第一部分：翻譯術(shù)語(yǔ)1.DefinitionsoftranslationTranslationcanberoughlydefinedasareproductionorrecreationinonelanguageofwhatiswrittenorsaidinanotherlanguage.Beingaverycomplicatedhumanactivity,itswholepictureisnevereasytodescribe.Scholarswithdifferentacademicbackgroundshaveattemptedtodefineitfromvariousperspectives.(1).LinguisticViewsonTranslationTranslationtheoristsfromthelinguisticschoolconceiveoftranslationasalinguisticactivityandsomebelievethattranslationtheoryisabranchoflinguistics,approachingtheissuesoftranslatingprimarilyfromtheviewpointofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweensourceandtargettexts.Translationmaybedefinedasthereplacementoftextualmaterialinonelanguage(thesourcelanguage)byequivalenttextualmaterialinanotherlanguage(thetargetlanguage).(Catford,1965:20).Translationtheoryderivesfromcomparativelinguistics,andwithinlinguistics,itismainlyanaspectofsemantics;allquestionsofsemanticsrelatetotranslationtheory.(Newmark,1982/1988:5).(2).CulturalViewsonTranslationIntheculturalapproach,translationisregardednotonlyasatransferoflinguisticsigns,butalsoasacommunicationofcultures,.translationisan"interculturalcommunication";hencethetermsof"interculturalcooperation","acculturation",and"transculturation".翻譯不僅涉及語(yǔ)言問(wèn)題,也涉及文化問(wèn)題。譯者不僅要了解外國(guó)的文化,還要深入了解自己民族的文化。不僅如此,還要不斷地把兩種文化加以比較,因?yàn)檎嬲膶?duì)等應(yīng)該是在各自文化中的含義、作用、范圍、感情色彩、影響等等都是相當(dāng)?shù)?。翻譯者必須是一個(gè)真正意義的文化人。人們會(huì)說(shuō)：他必須掌握兩種語(yǔ)言;確實(shí)如此,但是不了解語(yǔ)言當(dāng)中的社會(huì)文化,誰(shuí)也無(wú)法真正掌握語(yǔ)言(王佐良,1989)。(4).SemanticViewsonTranslationThisviewfocusesonthesemanticequivalencebetweenthetwolanguages,aswellexpressedbyEugeneNida(1986):"Translatingmeanstranslatingmeaning".Translationisrenderingthemeaningofatextintoanotherlanguageinthewaythattheauthorintendedthetext(Newmark,1988:5).Semantictranslation:thetranslatorattempts,withinthebaresyntacticandsemanticconstraintsofthetargetlanguage,toreproducetheprecisecontextualmeaningoftheauthor(Newmark,1982:22).Insemantictranslation,greaterattentionispaidtorenderingtheauthor'soriginalthought-processesintargetlanguagethantoattemptingtore-interpretsourcetextinawaywhichthetranslatorconsidersmoreappropriateforthetargetsetting(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:151).(5).FunctionalViewsonTranslationFunctionalistsbelievethattranslationisaspecificformofhumanactionwithacertainpurpose,akindoflinguisticserviceprovidedtotheshouldtakeintoaccounttheneedsoftheclient,

thereaderaswellasthepurposeoruseofthetranslation:Itisnotthesourcetext,oritseffectsonthesource-textrecipient,orthefunctionassignedtoitbytheauthor,thatdeterminesthetranslationprocess,buttheprospectivefunctionorpurposeofthetargettextasdeterminedbytheinitiator's,'sneeds(Baker,2001:236).(6).CommunicativeViewsonTranslationThisapproachviewstranslationasacommunicativeprocesswhichtakesplacewithinasocialcontext.Communicativetranslation:thetranslatorattemptstoproducethesameeffectonthetargetlanguagereadersaswasproducedbytheoriginalonthesourcelanguagereaders(Newmark,1982:22).Communicativetranslationisgenerallyorientedtowardstheneedsofthetargetlanguagereaderorrecipient.Atranslatorwhoistranslatingcommunicativelywilltreatsourcetextasamessageratherthanamerestringoflinguisticunits,andwillbeconcernedtopreservesourcetext'soriginalfunctionandtoreproduceitseffectonthenewaudience(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:21).Theaboveviewshelpustounderstandthecomplexnatureoftranslation.Sincetherearemanyfactorswhichaffectthetranslationprocess,translationisacomplicatedhumanactivity.2.TranslationCriteriaPutForwardbyFamousTranslatorsorTranslationTheoristsSomewell-knowntranslatorsortranslationtheoristsathomeandabroadhaveputforwardcriteriatojudgethequalityofatranslation.(1).嚴(yán)復(fù)(1853-1921):TriplePrincipleofTranslation信(faithfulness):忠實(shí)準(zhǔn)確達(dá)(expressiveness}:通順流暢雅(elegance):文字古雅YanFuputforwardthis"Three-characterGuide”inhisprefacetothetranslationof.Huxley'sbookEvolutionandEthicsandOtherEssays(《天演論》譯例言1898):譯事三難信達(dá)雅。求其信己大難矣。顧信矣不達(dá)。雖譯猶不譯也。則達(dá)尚焉......易曰修辭立誠(chéng)。子曰辭達(dá)而已。又曰言之無(wú)文，行之不遠(yuǎn)。三者乃文章正軌。亦即為譯事楷模。故信達(dá)而外，求其爾雅。此不僅期以行遠(yuǎn)已耳。實(shí)則精理微言。用漢以前字法句法，則為達(dá)易。用近世利俗文字，則求達(dá)難。往往抑義就詞，毫厘千里。審擇于斯二者之間，夫固有所不得已也。豈釣奇哉。......Translationhastodothreedifficultthings:tobefaithful,expressive,andelegant.Itisdifficultenoughtobefaithfultotheoriginal,andyetifatranslationisnotexpressive,itistantamounttohavingnotranslation.Henceexpressivenessshouldberequiredtoo.……TheBookofChangessaysthatthefirstrequisiteofrhetoricistruthfulness.Confuciussaysthatexpressivenessisallthatmattersinlanguage.Headdsthatifone'slanguagelacksgrace,itwon'tgofar.Thesethreequalities,then,arethecriteriaofgoodwritingand,Ibelieve,ofgoodtranslationtoo.Hencebesidesfaithfulnessandexpressiveness,Ialsoaimatelegance.Istriveforelegancenotjusttomakemytranslationstravelfar,buttoexpresstheoriginalwriter'sideasbetter,forIfindthatsubtlethoughtsarebetterexpressedinthevocabularyandsyntaxofpre-Hanprosethanthoseofthevulgarwritingsoftoday.Usingthelatteroftenleadstodistortionofmeaning,which,howeverslight,resultsinvastmisunderstanding.Weighingtheprosandcons,Ioptedfortheformer,asamatterofnecessity,nottryingtobedifferent……YanFu’sfirsttwocriteriaofbeingfaithfultotheoriginaltextincontentandbeingexpressiveintranslationaregenerallyacceptable,buthisinterpretationof"elegance"hasarousedplentyofcriticismbecause,inhisopinion,onehastoresorttothevocabularyandsyntaxofpre-Hanprosetoachieve"elegance".YanFu'scriteriaarealsocontroversialforhisemphasisontheequalstatusofthethreeconflicingprinciples.Despitethis,Yan’scriteriaarestillpopularinChina,buttheinterpretationofhiscriteriahaschanged.Nowadaystomanytranslators,"elegance"implies"thesafeandsoundpreservationofthetasteandshadeoftheoriginal”(黃龍,1988:90)or"運(yùn)用讀者所最樂(lè)于接受的文體,使譯文得以廣泛流傳，擴(kuò)大影響"(勞隴，《翻譯通訊》1983年第10期).(2).魯迅信（faithfulness)順（smoothness)(3).林語(yǔ)堂忠實(shí){faithfulness)通順(smoothness)美(beautifulness)翻譯的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)問(wèn)題，大概包括三方面。我們可依三方面的次序討論。第一是忠實(shí)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，第二是通順標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，第三是美的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。這翻譯的三層標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，與嚴(yán)氏的"譯事三難"，大體上是正相比符的。(4).傅雷:神似(resemblanceinspirit)以效果而論，(文學(xué))翻譯應(yīng)當(dāng)像臨畫(huà)一樣，所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老頭》重譯本序，1951)(5).錢(qián)鐘書(shū)：化境(reachingtheacmeofperfection)文學(xué)翻譯的最高境界是"化"，把作品從一國(guó)文字轉(zhuǎn)變成另一國(guó)文字，既能不因語(yǔ)文習(xí)慣的差異而露出生硬牽強(qiáng)的痕跡，又能完全保存原有的風(fēng)昧，那就算得入于"化境"。十七世紀(jì)有人贊美這種造詣的翻譯，比為原作的"投胎轉(zhuǎn)世"(thetransmigrationofsoul),軀殼換了一個(gè)，而精神姿致依然故我。換句話說(shuō)，譯本對(duì)原作應(yīng)該忠實(shí)得以至于讀起來(lái)不像譯本，因?yàn)樽髌吩谠睦锝^不會(huì)讀起來(lái)像經(jīng)過(guò)翻譯似的。(《林紓的翻譯》，1964)(6).劉重德：信（faithhlness）達(dá)（expressiveness）切（closeness)信于內(nèi)容(tobefaithfultothecontentoftheoriginal);達(dá)如其分(tobeasexpressiveastheoriginal);切合風(fēng)格(tobeasclosetotheoriginalstyleaspossible).(《渾金璞玉集》，1994:9)(7).許淵沖：三重標(biāo)準(zhǔn)(threelevelsofcriteria)(《翻譯的藝術(shù)》，1984:26)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)低標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中標(biāo)準(zhǔn)高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)內(nèi)容忠實(shí)(信)明確準(zhǔn)確精確(三似)意似形似神似(三化)淺化等化深化形式通順(達(dá))易懂通順揚(yáng)長(zhǎng)(雅,或傳神)(8).AlexanderFraserTytIer(泰特勒):ThreePrinciplesofTranslationAlexander,afamousBritishtranslationtheorist,putforwardtheclassicalcriteriainhisEssayonthePrinciplesofTranslation(1790):1)Thetranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideasoftheoriginalwork(譯作應(yīng)該完全傳達(dá)原作的思想)；2)Thestyleandmannerofwritinginthetranslationshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal(譯作的風(fēng)格與筆調(diào)應(yīng)當(dāng)與原作保持一致)；3)Thetranslationshouldhavealltheeaseoftheoriginalcomposition(譯作應(yīng)當(dāng)和原作一樣流暢).Tytlerfurtherpointsoutthattheabove-saidthreeprinciplesarearrangedandrankedaccordingtotheorderoftheirsignificance,andthat,whentheyarenotsimultaneouslyattainable,thefirstshouldbeheldtoatthesacrificeofthethirdprinciple,thenthesecond.(9).EugeneA.Nida(奈達(dá)):FunctionalEquivalence(功能對(duì)等)Eugene,afamousAmericantranslationtheorist,putforwardhisrecentinterpretationoffunctionalequivalenceinhisLanguageandCulture:ContextinTranslating(2001:87):1)Aminimal,realisticdefinitionoffunctionalequivalence:Thereadersofatranslatedtextshouldbeabletocomprehendittothepointthattheycanconceiveofhowtheoriginalreadersofthetextmusthaveunderstoodandappreciatedit.(最低限度而又切合實(shí)際的功能對(duì)等定義：譯文讀者對(duì)譯文的理解應(yīng)當(dāng)達(dá)到能夠想像出原文讀者是怎樣理解和領(lǐng)會(huì)原文的程度).2)Amaximal,idealdefinitionoffunctionalequivalence:Thereadersofatranslatedtextshouldbeabletounderstandandappreciateitinessentiallythesamemannerastheoriginalreadersdid.(最高限度合乎理想的功能對(duì)等定義：譯文讀者應(yīng)當(dāng)能夠基本上按照原文讀者理解和領(lǐng)會(huì)原文的方式來(lái)理解和領(lǐng)會(huì)譯文).3.Classificationoftranslation(1).Jakobson(1896-1982)1)Intralingualtranslationorrewordingisaninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofothersignsofthesamelanguage.2)

Interlingualtranslationortranslationproperisaninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofsomeotherlanguage.3)

Intersemiotictranslationortransmutationisaninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofsignsofnonverbalsignsystems..1)原文：子曰：“學(xué)而時(shí)習(xí)之，不亦樂(lè)乎!有朋友自遠(yuǎn)方來(lái)，不亦樂(lè)乎!人不知而不慍，不亦君子乎!”譯文一:孔子說(shuō):“學(xué)習(xí)了而時(shí)常溫習(xí)，不也高興嗎！有朋友從遠(yuǎn)方來(lái)，不也快樂(lè)嗎!別人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子嗎”(徐志剛譯)譯文二:TheMastersaid，"Tolearnandatduetimestorepeatwhatonehaslearnt，IsthatnotafterallapleasureThatfriendsshouldcometoonefromafar,IsthisnotafteralldelightfulToremainunsouredeventhoughone’smeritsareunrecognizedbyothers,Isthatnotafterallwhatisexpectedofagentleman(Waley譯)[點(diǎn)評(píng)]原文同譯文一之間的轉(zhuǎn)換屬于語(yǔ)內(nèi)翻譯(intralingualtranslation),即用同一語(yǔ)盲的其他語(yǔ)言符號(hào)對(duì)原文迸行闡釋或者重述(rewording)。原文同譯文二之間的轉(zhuǎn)換屬于語(yǔ)際翻譯(interlingualtranslation)，即兩個(gè)不同語(yǔ)言之間所進(jìn)行的轉(zhuǎn)換。2)原文：A:WhatdoesyourwatchsayB:Itsays“fivepastthree”.[點(diǎn)評(píng)]在這一對(duì)話中，B實(shí)際上是在迸行一種翻譯，這種翻譯叫做符際翻譯(intersemiotictranslation)，即語(yǔ)言同非語(yǔ)言符號(hào)之間的代碼轉(zhuǎn)換。當(dāng)A詢(xún)問(wèn)B幾點(diǎn)鐘的時(shí)候，B只能看鐘或者看手表，而鐘或者手表并不能說(shuō)話，B只能根據(jù)鐘表的時(shí)針和分針來(lái)確定具體兒點(diǎn)鐘了。而B(niǎo)所言實(shí)際上是言語(yǔ)傳達(dá)一個(gè)非言語(yǔ)信息(non-linguisticmessage)。將非言語(yǔ)信息用言語(yǔ)傳達(dá)出來(lái)是翻譯的一種方式，這不是從一種語(yǔ)言到另一種語(yǔ)言的轉(zhuǎn)換過(guò)程，而是從非語(yǔ)言交際系統(tǒng)到語(yǔ)言交際系統(tǒng)的過(guò)程。非語(yǔ)言交際系統(tǒng)和語(yǔ)言交際系統(tǒng)的共同特征是兩者都屬于"符號(hào)系統(tǒng)"(即用于交際的系統(tǒng))。雅可布遜Jakobson)將這種由非語(yǔ)言交際系統(tǒng)到語(yǔ)言交際系統(tǒng)的轉(zhuǎn)換過(guò)程稱(chēng)為符際翻譯是恰當(dāng)?shù)摹Ｆ鋵?shí)，我們每個(gè)人每一天、每一刻都在迸行著符際翻譯而不自知也。從這個(gè)意義上說(shuō)，我們每個(gè)人都是某種意義上的譯者(Hervey1995:8-9).(2).PeterNewmark(紐馬克):CommunicativeandSemanticTranslation(交際翻譯與語(yǔ)義翻譯)PeterNewmark,afamousBritishtranslationtheorist,putforwardhisconceptsofcommunicativeandsemantictranslationinhisApproachestoTranslation(1982/1988:39):1)Communicativetranslationattemptstoproduceonitsreadersaneffectascloseaspossibletothatobtainedonthereadersoftheoriginal.(交際翻譯力圖對(duì)譯作讀者產(chǎn)生盡可能接近原作讀者所獲得的效果).2)Semantictranslationattemptstorender,ascloselyasthesemanticandsyntacticstructuresofthesecondlanguageallow,theexactcontextualmeaningoftheoriginal.(語(yǔ)義翻譯力圖在譯作語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)義結(jié)構(gòu)和句法結(jié)構(gòu)允許的情況下，譯出原作在上下文中的準(zhǔn)確意義).4.NatureandScopeofTranslationWhatistranslationSomepeoplebelieveitisascience,otherstakeitasanart,andyetmanyconsideritacraft,orrather,askill.Ofthesevariedopinions,whichoneholdstrueforourpurposeTheanswerdependsonhowweunderstandorinterprettheword"translation",fortheveryword"translation"itselfisambiguous,andtheChineseequivalent"'fanyi"soundsevenfuzzier.Fanyi,inChinese,mayeitherstandforasubjectofthecurriculum,ajobpeopleengagein,apieceofliterarywork,orthetranslatingorinterpretingworkitself.Sometimes,"fanyi"mayevenrefertothetranslatororinterpreterhimself/herself.Iftheword"translation"referstoasubject,namely,thestudyoftranslationtheoryandskills,itisnodoubtascience,justasanysubjectis,withitsownrules,lawsandprinciplesforthetranslatorstoabideby;however,ifitreferstosomespecificpiecesoftranslation,thenitismorelikeanart,witheachpiecemanifestingitsowncharmsandstyleinthecreativehandsofthetranslator;whereas,ifitreferstoaprocess,inwhichsomethingistranslated,thenwemayregarditasacraftorskill.Forunlikeanybranchofnaturalscience,theprocessoftranslationhasitspeculiarity,andnoneofitsrulesandprinciplesareuniversallyapplicable.Besides,itentailsalotofpractice—particularcraftsmanshipandskillsaredisplayedbythetouchesofdifferenttranslators.Translationcoversaverybroadrange.Intermsoflanguages,itcanbedividedintotwocategories:fromnativelanguagesintoforeignlanguagesandviceversa;intermsofthemode,itcanbedividedintooralinterpretation,writtentranslationandmachinetranslation;intermsofmaterialstobetranslated,thereistranslationofscientificmaterials,translationofliteraryworkssuchasnovels,stories,prose,poetry,drama,etc.,translationofpoliticalessayssuchastreatisesonsocialproblems,reports,speeches,etc.,andtranslationofpracticalwriting(asofficialdocuments,contractsandagreements,notices,receipts,etc.);intermsofdisposal,itcanbeeitherfull-texttranslation（全文翻譯）,abridgedtranslation（摘譯）oradaptedtranslation（編譯）.5.PrinciplesorCriteriaofTranslationTheso-calledprinciplesandcriteriaoftranslationareactuallythetwosidesofthesamething.Theformerlaysemphasisonthetranslator,whoshouldfollowthemwhiletranslating;whilethelatteronthereaderorcritic,whomayusethecriteriatoevaluatetranslationworks.WheneverprinciplesorcriteriaoftranslationareunderdiscussioninChina,YanFu’s"three-characterguide",whichwasfirstproposedin1898,wouldevokecontroversy,namely,theprincipleof"信、達(dá)、雅"(faithfulnessexpressivenessandelegance).InthepastdecadesMr.Yan'sprincipleoftranslationhasbeengenerallyregardedasaplumb-lineformeasuringtheprofessionalleveloftranslationandagoalfortranslatorstostriveafter.However,intheapplicationofthisprinciple,peoplehavecometofindsomelimitationstothethreecharactersandputforwardavarietyofnewstandardsinstead.Threekindsofopinionsareexpressedontheprincipleoffaithfulness,expressivenessandelegance.Thefirstgroupmaintainstheoriginalthreecharacters,andinthemeantime,addssomenewconceptstothecharacter"雅".Accordingtothem,"雅"meansfarmorethantheEnglishword"elegance".Apartfromthetraditionalinterpretation,italsomeansclassicism,theadherencetotheoriginalstyleandflavor.Thesecondgroup,however,arguesthattheword"雅"isoutofplaceintranslation.WhileadoptingthefirsttwocharactersofMr.YanFu'sprinciple,itdiscardsthecharacter"雅"andtriestofindsomeothernewcriteriainstead.Noticeably,therearerevisionssuchas"信、達(dá)、切"(faithfulness,expressivenessandcloseness),"信、達(dá)、貼"(faithfulness,expressivenessandfitness),andsoon.Thethirdgroupofpeople,bycastingawaythethree-wordguide,proposesomenewprinciplesorcriteriaoftranslationoftheirown.Ofthevariouspopulartheoriestwoofthemaremostinfluential:spiritualconformity(神似)andsublimatedadaptation(化境).Theformer,proposedbyFuLeiemphasizesthereproductionofthespiritortheflavoroftheoriginal,whilethelatter,advocatedbyQianZhongshu,focusesonthetranslator'ssmoothandidiomaticChineseversionforthesakeoftheChinesereader.Despitethevarietyofopinions,twocriteriaarealmostunanimouslyaccepted,namely,thecriterionoffaithfulness/accuracy（忠實(shí)、準(zhǔn)確)andthatofsmoothness(流暢).Wemayalsotakethesetwocriteriaastheprinciplesoftranslationingeneral.Byfaithfulness/accuracy,wemeantobefaithfulnotonlytotheoriginalcontents,totheoriginalmeaningandviews,butalsototheoriginalformandstyle.Bysmoothness,wemeannotonlyeasyandreadablerendering,butalsoidiomaticexpressioninthetargetlanguage,freefromstiffformulaandmechanicalcopyingfromdictionaries.6.LiteralTranslationandFreeTranslationTheprocessoftranslationconsistsoftwophases:comprehensionandexpression.Generallyspeaking,comprehensionisofforemostimportance,andexpressionisthenaturalconsequenceofthoroughcomprehension.However,inthepracticeoftranslationwemayfindthatnowandthensomewordsintheirusualsensesareverydifficulttodealwithbecauseofthedisparitybetweentheEnglishandtheChineselanguages.Inthiscase,wehavetoresorttosomespecialmeansoftranslation.Literaltranslationandfreetranslationaretwousefulapproachesindealingwithsuchawkwardsituations.Theso-calledliteraltranslation,superficiallyspeaking,means"nottoaltertheoriginalwordsandsentences";strictlyspeaking,itstrives"tokeepthesentimentsandstyleoftheoriginal".Ittakessentencesasitsbasicunitsandtakesthewholetext(discourse)intoconsiderationatthesametimeinthecourseoftranslation.Furthermore,itstrivestoreproduceboththeideologicalcontentandthestyleoftheoriginalworksandretainsasmuchaspossiblethefiguresofspeech.TherearequitealotofexamplesofsuccessfulliteraltranslationthathavebeenadoptedasidiomaticChineseexpressions.Forexample,crocodile'stears,armedtotheteeth,chainreaction,gentlemen'sagreement,andsoon.Similarly,someChineseidiomsalsofindtheirEnglishcounterpartsthroughliteraltranslation.Forexample,紙老虎(papertiger),一國(guó)兩制(onecountry,twosystems),andsoon.Freetranslationisanalternativeapproachwhichisusedmainlytoconveythemeaningandspiritoftheoriginalwithouttryingtoreproduceitssentencepatternsorfiguresofspeech.Thisapproachismostfrequentlyadoptedwhenitisreallyimpossibleforthetranslatortodoliteraltranslation.Forexample:·Adam'sapple喉結(jié)·atsixesandsevens亂七八糟·Itrainscatsanddogs.大雨滂沱·Don'tcrossthebridgetillyougettoit.不必?fù)?dān)心過(guò)早。(不必自尋煩惱)·Doyouseeanygreeninmyeye你以為我是幼稚可欺的嗎Theaboveillustrationscannotbetranslatedliterally，otherwise，theChineserenditionwouldmakenonsenseatall，letalonetheoriginalmeaning.Literaltranslationandfreetranslation,however,arerelativeconcepts.Inotherwords,thereisnoabsolute“l(fā)iteral”，norentirely"free"versioninthepracticeoftranslation,andoveremphasizingeitherofthemwouldresultinridiculousconsequences.Let'sscrutinizethefollowingtwopracticalcases.OriginalEnglish1Ilovetigercat,…Britishmoviesonpublictelevision，fluffyblouses,thenuclearfamily,(HelenSnow，MyChinaYears)ChineseVersionA:我愛(ài)虎貓,……(愛(ài))電視上放映的英國(guó)影片，有絨毛的短衫，核心家庭，……ChineseVersionB:我喜歡豹貓,……喜歡公共電視臺(tái)播放的英國(guó)電影，喜歡蓬松、柔軟的棉毛衫，喜歡一夫一妻制的家庭，……Comment:Apparently,thesetwoChineseversionsarefarfrombeingperfect.Otherthingsaside,therenderingofthephrasenuclearfamilyposesaseriousproblemofrepresentation.VersionArenders"thenuclearfamily"as"核心家庭"bymeansofliteraltranslation.However,thisversionistoostiff,thereforeitfailstoconveytheoriginalmeaningtotheChinesereader—formostChinese,theyhavehardlyanyideawhat"核心家庭"reallymeans.VersionBadoptstheapproachoffreetranslationandputsitinto"一夫一妻制"；evidentlyitgoestoofaranddistortstheauthor'soriginalintention,andindoingso,thetranslatorabusesthepracticeoffreetranslation.Infact,thenuclearfamilyhasnothingtodowitheitheroftheversions.AcloseexaminationofitsdefinitioninanEnglish-Englishdictionaryshedslightonthisphrase:nuclearfamily,afamilygroupthatconsistsonlyoffather,motherandchildren.Therefore,theproperrenderingofthephraseshouldbewordstothiseffect:acozysmallfamily,namely,theChineseequivalent"小家庭".OriginalEnglish2:MaoTse-tungwaswellbred,butinsidehewasmadeofsteel,ofhardresistance,oftoughtissue—thekindoftissuetheBoxersthoughttheyhadbymagic,andbaredtheirsolarplexusestoforeignbullets.(ibid.)ChineseVersionA:毛澤東有很好的教養(yǎng)，內(nèi)部是鋼，有堅(jiān)強(qiáng)的抗力，是堅(jiān)韌的材料制成的。這是義和團(tuán)設(shè)想的由于神力具有的，可以把腹部袒胸給外國(guó)人的子彈的那種材料。ChineseVersionB:毛澤東教養(yǎng)有素，精神支柱鐵鑄鋼打，不怕高壓，是由堅(jiān)韌的組織構(gòu)成的。這種組織，就是義和拳認(rèn)為他們通過(guò)魔法得到的那種組織袒胸露體，刀槍不入。Comment:Theword"tissue"canhardlyberenderedintoChineseeitherinliteraltranslationorfreetranslation，norcouldthemetaphor"insidehewasmadeofsteel"beproperlyrenderedwithoutgraspingtheessenceofthewholesentence.However，sincethereisnocorrespondingexpressionsinChinese,thetranslatorstacklethemaccordingtotheirownunderstanding.InversionA，"tissue"isfreelyrenderedas"材料"(material)，whileversionBliterallyas"組織"(organictissue)—bothfailtoconveytheoriginalmeaningandattitudeofthewriter.Byadoptingtranslationskillssuchasamplification,omission，conversionandrestructuring，wemaytranslatetheoriginalEnglishsentenceasfollows:RevisedVersion:毛澤東外表溫文爾雅，但內(nèi)心深處卻鋼鑄鐵打，既堅(jiān)韌，又抗壓—在他的身上可以看到當(dāng)年義和團(tuán)自信所具有的那種神力，面對(duì)洋槍洋炮也敢袒胸露懷。Fromtheaboveanalysis,wecometotheconclusionthatthereisnoobviousdistinctionbetweenliteraltranslationandfreetranslation,norisitnecessarytodistinguishonefromtheother.Thekeypointforatranslatortograspistocomprehendtheoriginalthoroughly,andthenputitintoidiomaticChinese.Intheprocessoftranslation,specificapproachessuchasliteralorfreetranslationmaybeofsomehelp,butweshouldavoidthetwoextremes.Intheapplicationofliteraltranslation,weshouldendeavortoridourselvesofstiffpatternsandrigidadherencetotranslati