化學(xué)工程與工藝專業(yè)英語課文翻譯

Unit1ChemicalIndustry化學(xué)工業(yè)Beforereadingthetextbelow,trytoanswerfollowingquestion:Beforereadingthetextbelow,trytoanswerfollowingquestion:Whendidthemodernchemicalindustrystart?Canyougiveadefinitionforthechemicalindustry?Whatarethecontributionwhichthechemicalindustryhasmadetomeetandsatisfyourneeds?Isthechemicalindustrycapital-orlabor-intensive?Why?1.OriginsoftheChemicalIndustryAlthoughtheuseofchemicalsdatesbacktotheancientcivilizations,theevolutionofwhatweknowasthemodernchemicalindustrystartedmuchmorerecently.ItmaybeconsideredtohavebegunduringtheIndustrialRevolution,about1800,anddevelopedtoprovidechemicalsroeusebyotherindustries.Examplesarealkaliforsoapmaking,bleachingpowderforcotton,andsilicaandsodiumcarbonateforglassmaking.Itwillbenotedthattheseareallinorganicchemicals.Theorganicchemicalsindustrystartedinthe1860swiththeexploitationofWilliamHenryPerkin’sdiscoveryifthefirstsyntheticdyestuff—mauve.AtthestartofthetwentiethcenturytheemphasisonresearchontheappliedaspectsofchemistryinGermanyhadpaidoffhandsomely,andby1914hadresultedintheGermanchemicalindustryhaving75%oftheworldmarketinchemicals.ThiswasbasedonthediscoveryofnewdyestuffsplusthedevelopmentofboththecontactprocessforsulphuricacidandtheHaberprocessforammonia.Thelaterrequiredamajortechnologicalbreakthroughthatofbeingabletocarryoutchemicalreactionsunderconditionsofveryhighpressureforthefirsttime.TheexperiencegainedwiththiswastostandGermanyingoodstead,particularlywiththerapidlyincreaseddemandfornitrogen-basedcompounds(ammoniumsaltsforfertilizersandnitricacidforexplosivesmanufacture)withtheoutbreakofworldwarⅠin1914.Thisinitiatedprofoundchangeswhichcontinuedduringtheinter-waryears(1918-1939).化學(xué)工業(yè)起源盡管化學(xué)品使用能夠追溯到古代文明時代，我們所謂當(dāng)代化學(xué)工業(yè)發(fā)展卻是非常近代（才開始）。能夠認(rèn)為它起源于工業(yè)革命其間，大約在18，并發(fā)展成為為其它工業(yè)部門提供化學(xué)原料產(chǎn)業(yè)。比如制肥皂所用堿，棉布生產(chǎn)所用漂白粉，玻璃制造業(yè)所用硅及Na2CO3.我們會注意到全部這些都是無機(jī)物。有機(jī)化學(xué)工業(yè)開始是在十九世紀(jì)六十年代以WilliamHenryPerkin發(fā)覺第一個合成染料—苯胺紫并加以開發(fā)利用為標(biāo)志。20世紀(jì)初，德國花費(fèi)大量資金用于實(shí)用化學(xué)方面重點(diǎn)研究，到19，德國化學(xué)工業(yè)在世界化學(xué)產(chǎn)品市場上占有75%份額。這要?dú)w因于新染料發(fā)覺以及硫酸接觸法生產(chǎn)和氨哈伯生產(chǎn)工藝發(fā)展。而后者需要較大技術(shù)突破使得化學(xué)反應(yīng)第一次能夠在非常高壓力條件下進(jìn)行。這方面所取得成績對德國很有幫助。尤其是因?yàn)?9第一次世界大仗暴發(fā)，對以氮為基礎(chǔ)化合物需求飛速增加。這種深刻改變一直連續(xù)到戰(zhàn)后（1918-1939）。datebaketo/from:回溯到dated:過時，陳舊standsb.ingoodstead:對。。。很有幫助Since1940thechemicalindustryhasgrownataremarkablerate,althoughthishasslowedsignificantlyinrecentyears.Thelion’sshareofthisgrowthhasbeenintheorganicchemicalssectorduetothedevelopmentandgrowthofthepetrochemicalsareasince1950s.Theexplosivesgrowthinpetrochemicalsinthe1960sand1970swaslargelyduetotheenormousincreaseindemandforsyntheticpolymerssuchaspolyethylene,polypropylene,nylon,polyestersandepoxyresins.1940年以來，化學(xué)工業(yè)一直以引人注目標(biāo)速度飛速發(fā)展。盡管這種發(fā)展速度近年來已大大減慢。化學(xué)工業(yè)發(fā)展因?yàn)?950年以來石油化學(xué)領(lǐng)域研究和開發(fā)大部分在有機(jī)化學(xué)方面取得。石油化工在60年代和70年代迅猛發(fā)展主要是因?yàn)槿藗儗τ诤铣筛呔畚锶缇垡蚁⒕郾⒛猃?、聚脂和環(huán)氧樹脂需求巨大增加。Thechemicalindustrytodayisaverydiversesectorofmanufacturingindustry,withinwhichitplaysacentralrole.Itmakesthousandsofdifferentchemicalswhichthegeneralpubliconlyusuallyencounterasendorconsumerproducts.Theseproductsarepurchasedbecausetheyhavetherequiredpropertieswhichmakethemsuitableforsomeparticularapplication,e.g.anon-stickcoatingforpansoraweedkiller.Thuschemicalsareultimatelysoldfortheeffectsthattheyproduce.今天化學(xué)工業(yè)已經(jīng)是制造業(yè)中有著許多分支部門，而且在制造業(yè)中起著關(guān)鍵作用。它生產(chǎn)了數(shù)千種不一樣化學(xué)產(chǎn)品，而人們通常只接觸到終端產(chǎn)品或消費(fèi)品。這些產(chǎn)品被購置是因?yàn)樗麄兙邆湟恍┬再|(zhì)適合（人們）一些尤其用途，比如，用于盆不粘涂層或一個殺蟲劑。這些化學(xué)產(chǎn)品歸根到底是因?yàn)樗鼈兡墚a(chǎn)生作用而被購置。2.DefinitionoftheChemicalIndustryAttheturnofthecenturytherewouldhavebeenlittledifficultyindefiningwhatconstitutedthechemicalindustrysinceonlyaverylimitedrangeofproductswasmanufacturedandthesewereclearlychemicals,e.g.,alkali,sulphuricacid.Atpresent,however,manyintermediatestoproductsproduced,fromrawmaterialslikecrudeoilthrough(insomecases)manyintermediatestoproductswhichmaybeuseddirectlyasconsumergoods,orreadilyconvertedintothem.Thedifficultyconesindecidingatwhichpointinthissequencetheparticularoperationceasestobepartofthechemicalindustry’ssphereofactivities.Toconsideraspecificexampletoillustratethisdilemma,emulsionpaintsmaycontainpoly(vinylchloride)/poly(vinylacetate).Clearly,synthesisofvinylchloride(oracetate)anditspolymerizationarechemicalactivities.However,ifformulationandmixingofthepaint,includingthepolymer,iscarriedoutbyabranchofthemultinationalchemicalcompanywhichmanufacturedtheingredients,isthisstillpartofthechemicalindustryofdoesitmowbelonginthedecoratingindustry?化學(xué)工業(yè)定義在本世紀(jì)初，要定義什么是化學(xué)工業(yè)是不太困難，因?yàn)槟菚r所生產(chǎn)化學(xué)品是很有限，而且是非常清楚化學(xué)品，比如，燒堿，硫酸。然而現(xiàn)在有數(shù)千種化學(xué)產(chǎn)品被生產(chǎn)，從一些原料物質(zhì)像用于制備許多半成品石油，到能夠直接作為消費(fèi)品或很輕易轉(zhuǎn)化為消費(fèi)品商品。困難在于怎樣決定在一些特殊生產(chǎn)過程中哪一個步驟不再屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)活動范圍。舉一個特殊例子來描述一下這種困境。乳劑漆含有聚氯乙烯/聚醋酸乙烯。顯然，氯乙烯（或醋酸乙烯）合成以及聚合是化學(xué)活動。然而，假如這種漆，包含高聚物，它配制和混合是由一家制造配料跨國化學(xué)企業(yè)完成話，那它依然是屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)呢還是應(yīng)該歸屬于裝飾工業(yè)中去呢？Itisthereforeapparentthat,becauseofitsdiversityofoperationsandcloselinksinmanyareaswithotherindustries,thereisnosimpledefinitionofthechemicalindustry.Insteadeachofficialbodywhichcollectsandpublishesstatisticsonmanufacturingindustrywillhaveitsdefinitionastowhichoperationsareclassifiedasthechemicalindustry.Itisimportanttobearthisinmindwhencomparingstatisticalinformationwhichisderivedfromseveralsources.所以，很顯著，因?yàn)榛瘜W(xué)工業(yè)經(jīng)營種類很多并在很多領(lǐng)域與其它工業(yè)有親密聯(lián)絡(luò)，所以不能對它下一個簡單定義。相反每一個搜集和出版制造工業(yè)統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)官方機(jī)構(gòu)都會對怎樣屆定哪一類操作為化學(xué)工業(yè)有自己定義。當(dāng)比較來自不一樣路徑統(tǒng)計資料時，記住這點(diǎn)是很主要。3.TheNeedforChemicalIndustryThechemicalindustryisconcernedwithconvertingrawmaterials,suchascrudeoil,firstlyintochemicalintermediatesandthenintoatremendousvarietyofotherchemicals.Thesearethenusedtoproduceconsumerproducts,whichmakeourlivesmorecomfortableor,insomecasessuchaspharmaceuticalproduces,helptomaintainourwell-beingorevenlifeitself.Ateachstageoftheseoperationsvalueisaddedtotheproduceandprovidedthisaddedexceedstherawmaterialplusprocessingcoststhenaprofitwillbemadeontheoperation.Itistheaimofchemicalindustrytoachievethis.對化學(xué)工業(yè)需要化學(xué)工業(yè)包括到原材料轉(zhuǎn)化，如石油首先轉(zhuǎn)化為化學(xué)中間體，然后轉(zhuǎn)化為數(shù)量眾多其它化學(xué)產(chǎn)品。這些產(chǎn)品再被用來生產(chǎn)消費(fèi)品，這些消費(fèi)品能夠使我們生活更為舒適或者作藥品維持人類健康或生命。在生產(chǎn)過程每一個階段，都有價值加到產(chǎn)品上面，只要這些附加價值超出原材料和加工成本之和，這個加工就產(chǎn)生了利潤。而這正是化學(xué)工業(yè)要達(dá)成目標(biāo)。Itmayseemstrangeintextbookthisonetoposethequestion“doweneedachemicalindustry?”Howevertryingtoanswerthisquestionwillprovide(ⅰ)anindicationoftherangeofthechemicalindustry’sactivities,(ⅱ)itsinfluenceonourlivesineverydayterms,and(ⅲ)howgreatissociety’sneedforachemicalindustry.Ourapproachinansweringthequestionwillbetoconsidertheindustry’scontributiontomeetingandsatisfyingourmajorneeds.Whatarethese?Clearlyfood(anddrink)andhealthareparamount.Otherwhichweshallconsiderintheirturnareclothingand(briefly)shelter,leisureandtransport.在這么一本教科書中提出：“我們需要化學(xué)工業(yè)嗎？”這么一個問題是不是有點(diǎn)奇怪呢？然而，先回答下面幾個問題將給我們提供一些信息：（1）化學(xué)工業(yè)活動范圍，（2）化學(xué)工業(yè)對我們?nèi)粘Ｉ钣绊?，?）社會對化學(xué)工業(yè)需求有多大。在回答這些問題時候我們思緒將要考慮化學(xué)工業(yè)在滿足和改進(jìn)我們主要需求方面所做貢獻(xiàn)。是些什么需求呢？很顯然，食物和健康是放在第一位。其它我們要考慮按次序是衣物、住所、休閑和旅行。(1)Food.Thechemicalindustrymakesamajorcontributiontofoodproductioninatleastthreeways.Firstly,bymakingavailablelargequantitiesofartificialfertilizerswhichareusedtoreplacetheelements(mainlynitrogen,phosphorusandpotassium)whichareremovedasnutrientsbythegrowingcropsduringmodernintensivefarming.Secondly,bymanufacturingcropprotectionchemicals,i.e.,pesticides,whichmarkedlyreducetheproportionofthecropsconsumedbypests.Thirdly,byproducingveterinaryproductswhichprotectlivestockfromdiseaseorcuretheirinfections.(1)食物?；瘜W(xué)工業(yè)對糧食生產(chǎn)所做巨大貢獻(xiàn)最少有三個方面。第一，提供大量能夠取得肥料以補(bǔ)充因?yàn)槊芗鞅晦r(nóng)作物生長時所帶走營養(yǎng)成份。（主要是氮、磷和鉀）。第二，生產(chǎn)農(nóng)作物保護(hù)產(chǎn)品，如殺蟲劑，它能夠顯著降低害蟲所消耗糧食數(shù)量。第三，生產(chǎn)獸藥保護(hù)家禽免遭疾病或其它感染侵害。(2)Health.Weareallawareofthemajorcontributionwhichthepharmaceuticalsectoroftheindustryhasmadetohelpkeepusallhealthy,e.g.bycuringbacterialinfectionswithantibiotics,andevenextendinglifeitself,e.g.?–blockerstolowerbloodpressure.（2）健康。我們都很了解化學(xué)工業(yè)中制藥這一塊在維護(hù)我們身體健康甚至延長壽命方面所做出巨大貢獻(xiàn)，比如，用抗生素治療細(xì)菌感染，用β-抗血栓降低血壓。(3)Clothing.Theimprovementinpropertiesofmodernsyntheticfibersoverthetraditionalclothingmaterials(e.g.cottonandwool)hasbeenquiteremarkable.Thusshirts,dressesandsuitsmadefrompolyesterslikeTeryleneandpolyamideslikeNylonarecrease-resistant,machine-washable,anddrip-dryornon-iron.Theyarealsocheaperthannaturalmaterials.衣物。在傳統(tǒng)衣服面料上，當(dāng)代合成纖維性質(zhì)改進(jìn)也是非常顯著。用聚脂如滌綸或聚酰胺如尼龍所制作T恤、上衣、襯衫抗皺、可機(jī)洗，曬干自挺或免燙，也比天然面料廉價。Paralleldevelopmentsinthediscoveryofmodernsyntheticdyesandthetechnologyto“bond”themtothefiberhasresultedinatremendousincreaseinthevarietyofcolorsavailabletothefashiondesigner.Indeedtheynowspanalmosteverycolorandhueofthevisiblespectrum.Indeedifasuitableshadeisnotavailable,structuralmodificationofanexistingdyetoachievethiscanreadilybecarriedout,providedthereisasatisfactorymarketfortheproduct.與此同時，當(dāng)代合成染料開發(fā)和染色技術(shù)改進(jìn)使得時裝設(shè)計師們有大量色彩能夠利用。確實(shí)他們幾乎利用了可見光譜中全部色調(diào)和色素。實(shí)際上假如某種顏色沒有現(xiàn)成，只要這種產(chǎn)品確有市場，就能夠很輕易地經(jīng)過對現(xiàn)有色彩進(jìn)行結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整而取得。Othermajoradvancesinthisspherehavebeenincolor-fastness,i.e.,resistancetothedyebeingwashedoutwhenthegarmentiscleaned.這一領(lǐng)域中另一些主要進(jìn)展是不褪色，即在洗滌衣物時染料不會被洗掉。(4)Shelter,leisureandtransport.Intermsofshelterthecontributionofmodernsyntheticpolymershasbeensubstantial.Plasticsaretendingtoreplacetraditionalbuildingmaterialslikewoodbecausetheyarelighter,maintenance-free(i.e.theyareresistanttoweatheringanddonotneedpainting).Otherpolymers,e.g.urea-formaldehydeandpolyurethanes,areimportantinsulatingmaterialsforreducingheatlossesandhencereducingenergyusage.（4）住所，休閑和旅游。講到住所方面當(dāng)代合成高聚物貢獻(xiàn)是巨大。塑料正在取代像木材一類傳統(tǒng)建筑材料，因?yàn)樗鼈兏p，免維護(hù)（即它們能夠抵抗風(fēng)化，不需油漆）。另一些高聚物，比如，脲甲醛和聚脲，是非常主要絕緣材料能夠降低熱量損失因而降低能量損耗。Plasticsandpolymershavemadeaconsiderableimpactonleisureactivitieswithapplicationsrangingfromall-weatherartificialsurfacesforathletictracks,footballpitchesandtenniscourtstonylonstringsforracquetsanditemslikegolfballsandfootballsmadeentirelyfromsyntheticmaterials.塑料和高聚物應(yīng)用對休閑活動有很主要影響，從體育跑道全天候人造篷頂，足球和網(wǎng)球經(jīng)緯線，到球拍尼龍線還有高爾夫球元件，還有制造足球合成材料。Likewisethechemicalindustry’scontributiontotransportovertheyearshasledtomajorimprovements.Thusdevelopmentofimprovedadditiveslikeanti-oxidantsandviscosityindeximprovesforengineoilhasenabledroutineservicingintervalstoincreasefrom3000to6000to1miles.Researchanddevelopmentworkhasalsoresultedinimprovedlubricatingoilsandgreases,andbetterbrakefluids.Yetagainthecontributionofpolymersandplasticshasbeenverystrikingwiththeproportionofthetotalautomobilederivedfromthesematerials—dashboard,steeringwheel,seatpaddingandcoveringetc.—nowexceeding40%.多年來化學(xué)工業(yè)對旅游方面所作貢獻(xiàn)也有很大提升。一些添加劑如抗氧化劑開發(fā)和發(fā)動機(jī)油粘度指數(shù)改進(jìn)使汽車日產(chǎn)維修期限從3000英里延長到6000英里再到1英里。研發(fā)工作還改進(jìn)了潤滑油和油脂性能，并得到了愈加好剎車油。塑料和高聚物對整個汽車業(yè)貢獻(xiàn)百分比是驚人，源于這些材料—擋板，輪胎，坐墊和涂層等等—超出40%。Soitisquiteapparentevenfromabrieflookatthechemicalindustry’scontributiontomeetingourmajorneedsthatlifeintheworldwouldbeverydifferentwithouttheproductsoftheindustry.Indeedthelevelofacountry’sdevelopmentmaybejudgedbytheproductionlevelandsophisticationofitschemicalindustry.很顯然簡單地看一下化學(xué)工業(yè)在滿足我們主要需求方面所做貢獻(xiàn)就能夠知道，沒有化工產(chǎn)品人類社會生活將會多么困難。實(shí)際上，一個國家發(fā)展水平能夠經(jīng)過其化學(xué)工業(yè)生產(chǎn)水平和精細(xì)程度來加以判斷。4.ResearchandDevelopment(R&D)inChemicalIndustriesOneofthemainreasonsfortherapidgrowthofthechemicalindustryinthedevelopedworldhasbeenitsgreatcommitmentto,andinvestmentinresearchanddevelopment(R&D).Atypicalfigureis5%ofsalesincome,withthisfigurebeingalmostdoubledforthemostresearchintensivesector,pharmaceuticals.Itisimportanttoemphasizethatwearequotingpercentagesherenotofprofitsbutofsalesincome,i.e.thetotalmoneyreceived,whichhastopayforrawmaterials,overheads,staffsalaries,etc.aswell.Inthepastthistremendousinvestmenthaspaidoffwell,leadingtomanyusefulandvaluableproductsbeingintroducedtothemarket.Examplesincludesyntheticpolymerslikenylonsandpolyesters,anddrugsandpesticides.Althoughthenumberofnewproductsintroducedtothemarkethasdeclinedsignificantlyinrecentyears,andintimesofrecessiontheresearchdepartmentisusuallyoneofthefirsttosuffercutbacks,thecommitmenttoR&Dremainsataveryhighlevel.化學(xué)工業(yè)研究和開發(fā)。發(fā)達(dá)國家化學(xué)工業(yè)飛速發(fā)展一個主要原因就是它在研究和開發(fā)方面投入和投資。通常是銷售收入5%，而研究密集型分支如制藥，投入則加倍。要強(qiáng)調(diào)這里我們所提出百分?jǐn)?shù)不是指利潤而是指銷售收入，也就是說全部回收錢，其中包含要付出原材料費(fèi)，企業(yè)管理費(fèi)，員工工資等等。過去這筆巨大投資支付得很好，使得許多有用和有價值產(chǎn)品被投放市場，包含一些合成高聚物如尼龍和聚脂，藥品和殺蟲劑。盡管近年來進(jìn)入市場新產(chǎn)品大為降低，而且在衰退時期研究部門通常是最先被淘汰部門，在研究和開發(fā)方面投資依然保持在較高水平。Thechemicalindustryisaveryhightechnologyindustrywhichtakesfulladvantageofthelatestadvancesinelectronicsandengineering.Computersareverywidelyusedforallsortsofapplications,fromautomaticcontrolofchemicalplants,tomolecularmodelingofstructuresofnewcompounds,tothecontrolofanalyticalinstrumentsinthelaboratory.化學(xué)工業(yè)是高技術(shù)工業(yè)，它需要利用電子學(xué)和工程學(xué)最新結(jié)果。計算機(jī)被廣泛應(yīng)用，從化工廠自動控制，到新化合物結(jié)構(gòu)分子模擬，再到試驗(yàn)室分析儀器控制。Individualmanufacturingplantshavecapacitiesrangingfromjustafewtonesperyearinthefinechemicalsareatotherealgiantsinthefertilizerandpetrochemicalsectorswhichrangeupto500,000tonnes.Thelatterrequiresenormouscapitalinvestment,sinceasingleplantofthissizecannowcost$520million!This,coupledwiththewidespreaduseofautomaticcontrolequipment,helpstoexplainwhythechemicalindustryiscapital-ratherthanlabor-intensive.一個制造廠生產(chǎn)量很不一樣，精細(xì)化工領(lǐng)域每年只有幾噸，而巨型企業(yè)如化肥廠和石油化工廠有可能高達(dá)500,000噸。后者需要巨大資金投入，因?yàn)橐粋€這么規(guī)模工廠要花費(fèi)2億5千萬美元，再加上自動控制設(shè)備普遍應(yīng)用，就不難解釋為何化工廠是資金密集型企業(yè)而不是勞動力密集型企業(yè)。Themajorchemicalcompaniesaretrulymultinationalandoperatetheirsalesandmarketingactivitiesinmostofthecountriesoftheworld,andtheyalsohavemanufacturingunitsinanumberofcountries.Thisinternationaloutlookforoperations,orglobalization,isagrowingtrendwithinthechemicalindustry,withcompaniesexpandingtheiractivitieseitherbyerectingmanufacturingunitsinothercountriesorbytakingovercompanieswhicharealreadyoperatingthere.大部分化學(xué)企業(yè)是真正跨國企業(yè)，他們在世界上許多國家進(jìn)行銷售和開發(fā)市場，他們在許多國家都有制造廠。這種國際間合作理念，或全球一體化，是化學(xué)工業(yè)中發(fā)展趨勢。大企業(yè)經(jīng)過在別國家建造制造廠或者是收購已經(jīng)有工廠進(jìn)行擴(kuò)張。Unit2ResearchandDevelopment研究和開發(fā)Researchanddevelopment,orR&Dasitiscommonlyreferredto,isanactivitywhichiscarriedoutbyallsectorsofmanufacturingindustrybutitsextentvariesconsiderably,aswewillseeshortly.Letusfirstunderstand,oratleastgetafeelfor,whatthetermsmean.Althoughthedistinctionbetweenresearchanddevelopmentisnotalwaysclear-cut,andthereisoftenconsiderableoverlap,wewillattempttoseparatethem.Insimpletermsresearchcanbethoughtofastheactivitywhichproducesnewideasandknowledgewhereasdevelopmentisputtingthoseideasintopracticeasnewprocessandproducts.Toillustratethiswithanexample,predictingthestructureofanewmoleculewhichwouldhaveaspecificbiologicalactivityandsynthesizingitcouldbeseenasresearchwhereastestingitanddevelopingittothepointwhereitcouldbemarketedasanewdrugcouldbedescribedasthedevelopmentpart.研究和開發(fā)，或通常所稱R&D是制造業(yè)各個部門都要進(jìn)行一項活動。我們馬上能夠看到，它內(nèi)容改變很大。我們首先了解或先感覺一下這個詞含義。盡管研究和開發(fā)定義總是分得不很清楚，而且有許多重合部分，我們還是要試著把它們區(qū)分開來。簡單說來，研究是產(chǎn)生新思想和新知識活動，而開發(fā)則是把這些思想落實(shí)到實(shí)踐中得到新工藝和新產(chǎn)品行為。能夠用一個例子來描述這一點(diǎn)，預(yù)測一個有特殊生物活性分子結(jié)構(gòu)并合成它能夠看成是研究而測試它并把它發(fā)展到能夠作為一個新藥推向市場這一階段則看作開發(fā)部分。FundamentalResearchandAppliedResearchInindustrytheprimaryreasonforcartingoutR&Diseconomicandistostrengthenandimprovethecompany’spositionandprofitability.ThepurposeofR&Distogenerateandprovideinformationandknowledgetoreduceuncertainty,solveproblemsandtoprovidebetterdataonwhichmanagementcanbasedecisions.Specificprojectscoverawiderangeofactivitiesandtimescales,fromafewmonthsto20years.基礎(chǔ)研究和應(yīng)用研究在工業(yè)上進(jìn)行研究和開發(fā)最主要原因是經(jīng)濟(jì)利益方面，是為了加強(qiáng)企業(yè)地位，提升企業(yè)利潤。R&D目標(biāo)是做出并提供信息和知識以減低不確定性，處理問題，以及向管理層提供愈加好數(shù)據(jù)方便他們能據(jù)此做出決定。尤其項目涵蓋很大活動范圍和時間范圍，從幾個月到。WecanpickoutanumberofareasofR&Dactivityinthefollowingparagraphsbutifweweretostartwiththosewhichweretospringtothemindoftheacademic,ratherthantheindustrial,chemistthenthesewouldbebasic,fundamental(background)orexploratoryresearchandthesynthesisofnewcompounds.Thisisalsolabeled“blueskies”research.我們能夠在后面段落里舉出大量R&D活動。不過假如我們舉出點(diǎn)子起源于研究院而不是工業(yè)化學(xué)家頭腦，這就是基礎(chǔ)或探索性研究Fundamentalresearchistypicallyassociatedwithuniversityresearch.Itmaybecarriedoutforitsownintrinsicinterestanditwilladdtothetotalknowledgebasebutnoimmediateapplicationsofitinthe“realworld”wellbeapparent.Notethatitwillprovideavaluabletrainingindefiningandsolvingproblems,i.e.researchmethodologyfortheresearchstudentwhocarriesitoutundersupervision.However,later“spinoffs”fromsuchworkcanleadtousefulapplications.Thusphysicistsclaimthatbutforthestudyanddevelopmentofquantumtheorywemightnothavehadcomputersandnuclearpower.However,totakeaspecificallychemicalexample,generalstudiesonabroadareasuchashydrocarbonoxidationmightprovideinformationwhichwouldbeusefulinmorespecificareassuchascyclohexaneoxidationfortheproductionofnylonintermediates.基礎(chǔ)研究通常與大學(xué)研究聯(lián)絡(luò)在一起，它可能是因?yàn)閷ζ鋬?nèi)在興趣而進(jìn)行研究而且這種研究能夠拓寬知識范圍，但在現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中直接應(yīng)用可能性是很小。請注意，這種以內(nèi)就在提出和處理問題方面提供了極有價值訓(xùn)練，比如，在指導(dǎo)下完成研究工作學(xué)生所接收研究方法學(xué)（訓(xùn)練）。而且，從這些工作中產(chǎn)生“有用副產(chǎn)品”隨即也能帶來可觀使用價值。所以，物理學(xué)家宣稱要不是量子理論研究和發(fā)展我們可能依然沒有計算機(jī)和核能量。不論怎樣，舉一個特殊化學(xué)方面例子吧，在各個領(lǐng)域如烴氧化方面所做廣泛研究將為一些特殊領(lǐng)域如環(huán)己烯氧化生成尼龍中間產(chǎn)物提供有用信息。Aspectsofsynthesiscouldinvolveeitherdevelopingnew,morespecificreagentsforcontrollingparticularfunctionalgroupinterconversions,i.e.developingsyntheticmethodologyorcompletesynthesisofanentirelynewmoleculewhichisbiologicallyactive.Althoughtheformerisclearlyfundamentalthelatterencompassesboththisandappliedaspects.Thisterm‘a(chǎn)pplied’hastraditionallybeenmoreassociatedwithresearchoutinindustriallaboratories,sincethisismorefocusedortargeted.Itisaconsequenceoftheworkbeingbusinessdriven.經(jīng)過合成能夠生產(chǎn)出一些新、更特殊試劑以控制特殊官能團(tuán)轉(zhuǎn)換，即發(fā)展合成方法或完成一些具備生物活性新分子合成。盡管前者顯然屬于基礎(chǔ)性研究而后者則包含基礎(chǔ)研究和實(shí)用性研究兩部分。所謂“實(shí)用性”習(xí)慣上是指與在工業(yè)試驗(yàn)室完成研究聯(lián)絡(luò)在一起，因?yàn)樗吣繕?biāo)性，它是商業(yè)行為驅(qū)動結(jié)果。Note,however,thattherehasbeenamajorchangeinrecentyearsasacademicinstitutionshaveincreasinglyturnedtoindustryforresearchfunding,withtheresultthatmuchmoreoftheirresearcheffortismowdevotedtomoreappliedresearch.Evenso,inacademiatheemphasisgenerallyisverymuchontheresearchratherthanthedevelopment.然而，請注意。近幾年有很大改變，大學(xué)研究機(jī)構(gòu)正越來越多地轉(zhuǎn)向工業(yè)界尋求研究經(jīng)費(fèi)，其結(jié)果就是他們研究工作越來越多地是致力于實(shí)用研究。即使這么，學(xué)院工作重點(diǎn)通常還是在于研究而不是開發(fā)。TypesofIndustrialResearchandDevelopmentTheappliedormoretargetedtypeofresearchanddevelopmentcommonlycarriedoutinindustrycanbeofseveraltypesandwewillbrieflyconsidereach.Theyare:(ⅰ)productdevelopment,(ⅱ)processdevelopment,(ⅲ)processimprovementand(ⅳ)applicationsdevelopment.Evenundertheseheadingsthereareamultitudeofaspectssoonlyatypicalexamplecanbequotedineachcase.Theemphasisoneachofthesewillvaryconsiderablywithinthedifferentsectorsofthechemicalindustry.2．工業(yè)研究和開發(fā)類型通常在生產(chǎn)中完成實(shí)用型或有目標(biāo)性研究和開發(fā)能夠分為好幾類，我們對此加以簡述。它們是：（1）產(chǎn)品開發(fā)；（2）工藝開發(fā)；（3）工藝改進(jìn)；（4）應(yīng)用開發(fā)；每一類下還有許多分支。我們.對每一類舉一個經(jīng)典例子來加以說明。在化學(xué)工業(yè)不一樣部門內(nèi)每類工作重點(diǎn)有很大不一樣。(1)Productdevelopment.Productdevelopmentincludesnotonlythediscoveryanddevelopmentofanewdrugbutalso,forexample,providinganewlonger-activeanti-oxidantadditivetoanautomobileengineoil.Developmentsuchasthishaveenabledservicingintervalstoincreaseduringthelastdecadefrom3000to6000to9000andnowto1miles.Notethatmostpurchasersofchemicalsacquirethemfortheeffectsthattheyproducei.e.aspecificuse.Teflon,orpolytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE),maybepurchasedbecauseitimpartsanon-sticksurfacetocookingpotsandpans,therebymakingthemeasiertoclean.(1)產(chǎn)品開發(fā)。產(chǎn)品開發(fā)不但包含一個新藥創(chuàng)造和生產(chǎn)，還包含，比如說，給一個汽車發(fā)動機(jī)提供更長時效抗氧化添加劑。這種開發(fā)產(chǎn)品已經(jīng)使（發(fā)動機(jī)）服務(wù)期限在最近十年中從3000英里提升到6000、9000現(xiàn)在已提升到1英里。請注意，大部分買家所需要是化工產(chǎn)品能創(chuàng)造出來效果，亦即某種特殊用途。Tdflon，或稱聚四氟乙烯（PTFE）被購置是因?yàn)樗苁钩床隋?、盆表面不粘，易于清洗?2)Processdevelopment.Processdevelopmentcoversnotonlydevelopingamanufacturingprocessforanentirelynewproductbutalsoanewprocessorrouteforanexistingproduct.Thepushforthelattermayoriginateforoneormoreofthefollowingreasons:availabilityofnewtechnology,changeintheavailabilityand/orcostofrawmaterials.Manufactureofvinylchloridemonomerisanexampleofthis.Itsmanufacturingroutehaschangedseveraltimesowingtochangingeconomics,technologyandrawmaterials.Anotherstimulusisamarkedincreaseindemandandhencesalesvolumewhichcanhaveamajoreffectontheeconomicsoftheprocess.Theearlydaysofpenicillinmanufactureaffordagoodexampleofthis.（2）工藝開發(fā)。工業(yè)開發(fā)不但包含為一個全新產(chǎn)品設(shè)計一套制造工藝，還包含為現(xiàn)有產(chǎn)品設(shè)計新工藝或方案。而要進(jìn)行后者時可能源于下面一個或幾個原因：新技術(shù)利用、原材料取得或價格發(fā)生了改變。氯乙烯單聚物制造就是這么一個例子。它制造方法伴隨經(jīng)濟(jì)、技術(shù)和原材料改變改變了好幾次。另一個刺激原因是需求顯著增加。因而銷售量對生產(chǎn)流程經(jīng)濟(jì)效益有很大影響。Penicillin早期制造就為此提供了一個很好例子。TheabilityofpenicillintopreventtheonsetofsepticemiainbattlewoundsduringtheSecondWorldWar(1939～1945)resultedinanenormousdemandforittobeproducedinquantity.Upuntilthenithadonlybeenproducedinsmallamountsonthesurfaceofthefermentationbrothinmilkbottles!AnenormousR&DeffortjointlyintheU.S.andtheU.K.resultedintwomajorimprovementstotheprocess.FirstlyadifferentstainofthemouldgavemuchbetteryieldsthantheoriginalPenicilliumnotatum.Secondlythemajorprocessdevelopmentwastheintroductionofthedeepsubmergedfermentationprocess.Herethefermentationtakesplacethroughoutthebroth,providedsterileairisconstantly,andvigorously,blownthroughit.Thishasenabledtheprocesstobescaledupenormouslytomodernstainlesssteelfermentershavingacapacityinexcessof50000liters.Itissalutarytonotethatinthefirstworldwar(1914～1919)moresoldiersdiedfromsepticemiaoftheirwoundsthanwereactuallykilledoutrightonthebattlefield!Penicillin能預(yù)防戰(zhàn)爭中因傷口感染引發(fā)敗血癥，因而在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)（1939-1945）中，penicillin需求量非常大，需要大量生產(chǎn)。而在那時，penicillin只能用在瓶裝牛奶表面發(fā)酵方法小量生產(chǎn)。英國和美國投入了巨大人力物力聯(lián)合進(jìn)行研制和開發(fā)，對生產(chǎn)流程做出了兩個重大改進(jìn)。首先用一個不一樣菌株—黃霉菌代替普通青霉，它產(chǎn)量要比后者高得多。第二個重大流程開發(fā)是引進(jìn)了深層發(fā)酵過程。只要在培養(yǎng)液中連續(xù)通入大量純化空氣，發(fā)酵就能在全部部位進(jìn)行。這使生產(chǎn)能力大大地增加，達(dá)成當(dāng)代容量超出5000升不銹鋼發(fā)酵器。而在第一次世界大戰(zhàn)中，死于傷口感染士兵比直接死于戰(zhàn)場上人還要多。注意到這一點(diǎn)不能不讓我們心存感激。Processdevelopmentforanewproductdependsonthingssuchasthescaleonwhichitistobemanufactured,theby-productsformedandtheirremoval/recovery,andrequiredpurity.Datawillbeacquiredduringthisdevelopmentstageusingsemi-technicalplant(upto100literscapacity)whichwillbeinvaluableinthedesignoftheactualmanufacturingplant.Iftheplantistobeaverylargecapacity,continuouslyoperatingone,e.g.petrochemicalorammonia,thenapilotplantwillfirstbebuiltandoperatedtotestouttheprocessandacquiremoredata,thesesemi-technicalorpilotplantswillberequiredfortesting,e.g.,apesticide,orcustomerevaluation,e.g.,anewpolymer.對一個新產(chǎn)品進(jìn)行開發(fā)要考慮產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)規(guī)模、產(chǎn)生副產(chǎn)品以及分離/回收，產(chǎn)品所要求純度。在開發(fā)階段利用中試車間（最大容量可達(dá)100升）取得數(shù)據(jù)設(shè)計實(shí)際制造廠是非常寶貴，比如石油化工或氨生產(chǎn)。要先建立一個中試車間，運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)并測試流程以取得更多數(shù)據(jù)。他們需要測試產(chǎn)品性質(zhì)，如殺蟲劑，或進(jìn)行消費(fèi)評定，如一個新聚合物。Notethatby-productscanhasamajorinfluenceontheeconomicsofachemicalprocess.Phenolmanufactureprovidesastrikingexampleofthis.Theoriginalroute,thebenzenesulphonicacidroute,hasbecomeobsoletebecausedemandforitsby-producesodiumsulfite(2.2tons/ltonphenol)hasdriedup.Itsrecoveryanddisposalwillthereforebeanadditionalchargeontheprocess,thusincreasingthecostofthephenol.Incontrastthecumenerouteowesitseconomicadvantageoveralltheotherroutestothestrongdemandfortheby-productacetone(0.6tons/ltonphenol).Thesaleofthisthereforereducesthenetcostofthephenol.注意，副產(chǎn)品對于化學(xué)過程經(jīng)濟(jì)效益也有很大影響。酚生產(chǎn)就是一個有代表性例子。早期方法，苯磺酸方法，因?yàn)樗碑a(chǎn)品亞硫酸鈉需求枯竭而變過時。亞硫酸鈉需回收和廢置成為生產(chǎn)過程附加費(fèi)用，增加了生產(chǎn)酚成本。相反，異丙基苯方法，在經(jīng)濟(jì)效益方面優(yōu)于全部其余方法就在于市場對于它副產(chǎn)品丙酮迫切需求。丙酮銷售所得降低了酚生產(chǎn)成本。Amajorpartoftheprocessdevelopmentactivityforamewplantistominimize,orideallypreventbydesigningout,wasteproductionandhencepossiblepollution.Theeconomicandenvironmentaladvantagesofthisareobvious.對一個新產(chǎn)品進(jìn)行工藝開發(fā)一個主要部分是經(jīng)過設(shè)計把廢品減到最低，或盡可能地預(yù)防可能污染，這么做帶來經(jīng)濟(jì)利益和對環(huán)境益處是顯而易見。Finallyitshouldbenotedthatprocessdevelopmentrequiresabigteameffortbetweenchemists,chemicalengineers,andelectricalandmechanicalengineerstobesuccessful.最終要注意，工業(yè)開發(fā)需要包含化學(xué)家、化學(xué)工程師、電子和機(jī)械工程師這么一支龐大隊伍協(xié)同合作才能取得成功。（3)Processimprovement.Processimprovementrelatestoprocesseswhicharealreadyoperating.Itmaybeaproblemthathasarisenandstoppedproduction.Inthissituationthereisalotofpressuretofindasolutionassoonaspossiblesothatproductioncanrestart,since‘downtime’costsmoney.（3）工藝改進(jìn)。工藝改進(jìn)與正在進(jìn)行工藝關(guān)于。它可能出現(xiàn)了某個問題使生產(chǎn)停頓。在這種情形下，就面臨著很大壓力要盡快地處理問題方便生產(chǎn)重新開始，因?yàn)楣收掀诨ㄙM(fèi)資財。downtime:故障期Morecommonly,however,processimprovementwillbedirectedatimprovingtheprofitabilityoftheprocess.Thismightbeachievedinanumberofways.Forexample,improvingtheyieldbyoptimizingtheprocess,increasingthecapacitybyintroducinganewcatalyst,orloweringtheenergyrequirementsoftheprocess.AnexampleofthelatterwastheintroductionofturbocompressorsintheproductionofammoniabytheHaberprocess.Thisreducedutilitycosts(mainlyelectricity)from$6.66to%0.56pertonofammoniaproduced.Improvingthequalityoftheproduct,byprocessmodification,mayleadtonewmarketsfortheproduct.然而，更為常見，工藝改進(jìn)是為了提升生產(chǎn)過程利潤。這能夠經(jīng)過很多路徑實(shí)現(xiàn)。比如經(jīng)過優(yōu)化流程提升產(chǎn)量，引進(jìn)新催化劑提升效能，或降低生產(chǎn)過程所需要能量?？烧f明后者一個例子是在生產(chǎn)氨過程中渦輪壓縮機(jī)引進(jìn)。這使生產(chǎn)氨成本（主要是電）從每噸6.66美元下降到0.56美元。經(jīng)過工藝改進(jìn)提升產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量也會為產(chǎn)品打開新市場。Inrecentyears,however,themostimportantprocessimprovementactivityhasbeentoreducetheenvironmentalimpactoftheprocess,i.e.,topreventtheprocesscausinganypollution.Clearlytherehavebeentwointerlinkeddrivingforcesforthis.Firstly,thepublic’sconcernaboutthesafetyofchemicalsandtheireffectontheenvironment,andthelegislationwhichhasfollowedasaresultofthis.Secondlythecosttothemanufacturerofhavingtotreatwaste(i.e.,materialwhichcannotberecoveredandusedrsold)sothatitcanbesafelydisposedof,saybypumpingintoariver.Thisobviouslyrepresentsachargeontheprocesswhichwillincreasethecostofthechemicalbeingmade.Thepotentialforimprovementbyreducingtheamountofwasteisself-evident.然而，近年來，最主要工藝改進(jìn)行為主要是降低生產(chǎn)過程