syntax教學(xué)講解課件

Chapter4Syntax4.1Whatissyntax?4.2Categories

4.3Phrasestructurerule4.4Phraseelements4.5Sentences(TheSrule)4.6Transformations.Theword

Syntax,derivedfromGreek,ismadeupof2morphemes:{syn}and{tax}.Theformermeans“_________”,andthelatter“___________”.Inlinguistics,

Syntax(句法學(xué))isabranchthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.

Toputitsimple,itisthestudyoftheformationofsentences.togethertoarrange4.1Whatissyntax?.SinceSentenceisregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofalanguage,syntaxhaslongbeenthecentreofgrammaticalstudy.Differentlinguisticstheoriesfirstdifferintheirtreatmentofsentencestructure. 1.thetraditionalapproach(傳統(tǒng)學(xué)派)； 2.thestructureapproach(結(jié)構(gòu)主義學(xué)派)；

4.thefunctionalapproach(功能學(xué)派).3.thegenerativeapproach(生成學(xué)派)；AmericanlinguistsA.N.Chomsky(1928-).Thetraditionalapproachviewsasentenceasasequenceofwords.Thestudyofsentenceformationthusinvolvesthestudyof…ofwords.1.number(數(shù)),gender(性),case(格)2.tense(時態(tài)),aspect(體),voice(語態(tài))3.concord(一致性)andgovernment(支配關(guān)系)Thetraditionalapproach(傳統(tǒng)學(xué)派).ThisapproachwasstartedbytheSwisslinguistSaussure,thefatherofmodernlinguistics,inthebeginningofthe20thcentury.AllthelinguistictheoriesafterSaussurearestructuralinthattheyallregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(orsystem),notasisolatedbits.Thestructureapproach(結(jié)構(gòu)主義學(xué)派)1.Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelation

橫組合/縱聚合關(guān)系2.Immediateconstituent(直接成分)analysis3.Endocentric/exocentricconstructions

向心/離心結(jié)構(gòu).Syntagmatic(橫組合)relationisarelationbetweenelementsthatoccurinasentence.Paradigmatic(縱聚合)relationisarelationbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceofastructure.

Theboykickedtheball.Theballkickedtheboy.Theboytheballkicked.Theboychasedthedog.現(xiàn)場所有成分之間的關(guān)系；詞必須滿足一些句法和語義條件?，F(xiàn)場成分與不在現(xiàn)場成分之間的關(guān)系；詞只受句法的限制。womansoldiertiger…….Immediateconstituentanalysis:Asentenceisnotonlylinearlyarranged,butalsohierarchically(層級)structured.Bloomfieldproposeditin1933.Theboykickedtheball.可用括號分析層級：詞—詞組—更大詞組—句子；也可以用treestructure分層級。moreexpensiveclothes.endocentricconstructions向心結(jié)構(gòu)thebooksontheshelfexocentricconstructions離心結(jié)構(gòu)ontheshelfhead/center.Thisapproachoriginatedinthelate1950swiththeAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky,whograduallyestablishedthewell-knownTransformational-Generative(TG)Grammar.Fromitsbirthtothepresentday,TGGrammarhasseenseveralstagesofdevelopment.Thegenerativeapproach(生成學(xué)派)Deepstructureandsurfacestructure.Linguistswhoadoptthisapproachareinterestedinrelatingthevariouskindsoflinguisticstructuresandpatternstothefunctionsthatlanguageservesandtothesocialsettingsinwhichitisused.1.PragueLinguisticCircle(布拉格語言學(xué)會):

theme(主位)andrheme(述位)2.Systemic-FunctionalGrammar(系統(tǒng)功能語法)

Thefunctionalapproach(功能學(xué)派).對句子進(jìn)行功能分析：theme(主位):

已知的信息或至少在給定環(huán)境中是明確的，說話者從它開始談話。

rheme(述位)：說話者陳述的有關(guān)，或者涉及，話語起點的內(nèi)容。Fatherwrotethisletter.Thisletterwaswrotebyfather.從已知到未知是自然的，叫做客觀順序；在感情敘述中可把述位放在主位前面，叫做主觀順序。.Theboykickedtheball.Theballwaskickedbytheboy.傳統(tǒng)意義上的主語，承擔(dān)了不同的功能。(1)動作者，“邏輯主語”，指行動的施動者；(2)情態(tài)主語，“語法主語”，是謂語表述的對象；(3)主位，“心理主語”，指信息的關(guān)注點；

Systemic-FunctionalGrammar(系統(tǒng)功能語法)Halliday盡力將語言功能和結(jié)構(gòu)聯(lián)系起來，認(rèn)為有三種普遍的語言功能（P11）（1）Ideationalfunction(概念功能)（2）Interpersonalfunction(人際功能)（3）Textualfunction(語篇功能)..Category

(P42)referstowhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchas.4.2Categories(范疇)agroupoflinguisticitems1.word-levelcategories2.phrasecategories3.sentencesthegenerativeapproach(生成學(xué)派)asentence,anounphraseoraverb.Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc..Morespecifically,itreferstothecategoriesofthenouns,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc..syntaxcategories(句法范疇)(P43)classesandfunctionsthedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits：.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories.(traditionally,partsofspeech)1.Howmanywordclassesdoyouknowabout?①traditionalcategories:n.,v.,adj.,adv.,prep.,conj.,aux.,pronoun….②non-traditionalcategories:determiner(Det限定詞),degreewords(Deg程度詞),qualifier(Qual修飾語).4.2.1Word-levelcategories.2.Whataremajor/minorlexicalcategories?①Majorlexicalcategoriesareoftenassumedtobetheheads(中心語/中心成分)aroundwhichphrasesarebuilt:n.,v.,adj.andprep..②Minorlexicalcategoriesinclude:determiner(Det限定詞),degreewords(Deg程度詞),qualifier(Qual修飾語)

andsoon.

(P43)3.Whatarethecriteriatodetermineaword’scategories?①meaning;②inflection;③distribution.(P44,L1)①聰明的；學(xué)生②懷疑；羨慕

doubted,envies

(主要/次要詞匯范疇)Note:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.

(P44)③shoulders,waters,concerned

shouldersone’swaydrinkthewaters

concernedoneselfwithPleasefinishEx.7onpage60..Syntacticunits1.definitionforphrasecategories2.twolevelsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).theprettygirlDetANNPwordlevelphraselevelP45,pleasedrawtreediagramsfortheother3phrases.4.2.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures.Thewordclassofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead.Specifierscanbedeterminers(限定詞)asinNP,qulifiers(修飾語)asinVPanddegreewords(程度詞)asinAPandPP.specifier+head+complement3.thestructureorelementsofphrasesthewordaround

whichaphraseisformed標(biāo)志語中心語補足語thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsthewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsSemantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary..NP(Det)+N+(PP)…VP(Qual)+V+(NP)…AP(Deg)+A+(PP)…PP(Deg)+P+(NP)…

thosepeople,thefishontheplate,alwaysplaygames,verypessimistic,familiarwith,ontheshelf“consistsof”4.3Phrasestructurerules“theelementinitcanbeomitted”“othercomplementoptionsareavailable”Specifier+head+complement

規(guī)定組成一個短語的各組成部分的排列方式的語法機制即短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則。（P45）.1.thetallmanwithglassesthatImet2.advisehiminawritingclassthatheshouldbuyanEnglishdictionary3.curiousoftheresultsthatnoonewasthere4.aftertheEnglishclass？Pleasedecidewhetherthefollowinglexicalitemsarephrases.Ifyes,pleaseidentifythephrasecategoriesbyfiguringouttheirheadsandthenanalyzetheirstructure.1.NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)2.VP→V(NP)(PP)(S)3.AP→A(PP)(S)4.PP→P(NP)manadvisecuriousafter()()()(()()）.NP(Det)+N+(PP)…VP(Qual)+V+(NP)…AP(Deg)+A+(PP)…PP(Deg)+P+(NP)…

TheXPrulePhraseStructurerules

specifier+head+complementSpecifierXComplementHeadXPXP→(specifier)X(complement).XPrulespecifierXcomplementheadXPXP→(specifier)X(complement)XtheoryspecifierX(head)complementXPXwordlevelphraselevelintermediatelevela.XP(specifier)Xb.XX(complement)(X標(biāo)桿理論)wordlevelphraselevel(P46)請分析：oftenreadstories.(并列規(guī)則P48)Coordinationstructuresthestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.

boysandgirlsstayorleaveCoordinationrule.1.sing,dance,read…orwatchTV2.singsweetsongsordrawbeautifulpictures3.apples,bananas,oranges/singing,dancing4.optimisticandpassionate

Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction.Acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated.(Ex.10,P60)Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.

X→X*ConX(P47)(并列規(guī)則P46)Coordinationrule請分析：singanddrawsingsongsanddrawpictures.HomeworkP60putonherclothesandwentoutExercise8:a,c,d,e(答案見PP27)Exercise10:a,b,c句中的并列結(jié)構(gòu).APNrichinmineralsPPAPEx.8P60AP(Deg)+A+(PP)…XPrule

(specifier+)head+complement.QualVANoftenreaddetectivestoriesNPVPVP(Qual)+V+(NP)…NP(Det)+N+(PP)…

specifier+head+complementVP(X).DetNPDetNtheargumentagainsttheproposalsPPNPNPNPNP(Det)+N+(PP)…PP(Deg)+P+(NP)…

(X)specifier+head+complement.DegPDetNalreadyabovethewindowPPNPPPPP(Deg)+P+(NP)…

NP(Det)+N+(PP)…(specifier+)head+complement..specifier+head+complement標(biāo)志語中心語補足語4.4.1.specifiers

4.4.2.complements

4.4.3.modifiers

4.4Phraseelements.1.Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.2.Thewordclassofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead. Specifierscanbedeterminers(限定詞Det)asinNP,qulifiers(修飾語Qual)asinVPanddegreewords(程度詞Deg)asinAPandPP.3.Theyareattachedtothetoplevelofphrasestructures.(Xtheory)Specifiers標(biāo)志語specifier+head+complement.Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformation(aboutentitiesandlocations)(whoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead).eg.

read;astory;putTheinformation(aboutaword’scomplement)isincluded(inthehead)andtermedsubcategorization

(次范疇化).

Complements補足語specifier+head+complement

.Acertainlexicalitemrequiresacertaintypeofcomplement.eg.

appear(vi.),cut(vt.),put(vt.)…Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…Complements,howevermanythereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.ThusthereisarevisedXPrule:XP→(specifier)X(complement*).Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…;

asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin

Ibelievedthat

shewasinnocent.

Idoubt

if

shewillcome.Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementarecalled

complementizers(Cs)(補語化成分).Thesentencesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause(補語從句)complementphrases(補語短語)(shortenedasCP)Theconstructioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembedded(嵌入)iscalled

matrixclause(主句)

.Thereisnolimitonthenumberofembeddedclausesthatcanoccurinasentencesinceeachcomplementcancontainaverbthatitselfpermitsacomplementphrases.MissHebertbelieves

thatshewillwinthegame

whichisorganizedbythenewcommittee

thatarefullyaware

thattheirtargettopromotethedevelopmentoffolkarts

that…XP→(specifier)X(complement*).NotallverbscantakeaCPcomplement.WordsthatcanCParenotverbsalone;As,NsandPscanalltakeCP.

ItemsHeads

Examples

Adjectivesafraid,certain,awareIwasafraid

thatnobodywouldbelieveme.

Nounsfact,claim,beliefShecan’tbelievethefact

thatshewouldfailintheexam.Prep.over,aboutTheyarguedover

whethershehadcometoclass.

.Modifiers

specifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.(P51,L1)Modifiers修飾語ModifierPosition

Example

APprecedestheheadAverycareful

girlPPfollowstheheadopen

withcare

AdvPprecedesorfollowstheheadread

carefully;carefully

read

Ex.4(P65).XP→(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)XP→(specifier)X(complement*)XP→(specifier)X(complement)Pleaseanalyzethefollowingphrase:

1.opentheboxwithcare2.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl.NP(Det)+NNP(Spec)+N

VDetNPNopentheboxwithcareVPPPNPhead+complement+modifierPPP+(NP)PPP+(Complement)

VPV+(NP)+(PP)

VPV+(Complement)+(Mod)

.DetNPDetANastoryaboutasentimentalgirlPPNPNPNPNP(Spec)+（Mod）+NPPP+(Complement)

specifier+head+complement.1.陳述句2.疑問句（1）帶有助動詞(overtInflform)的一般疑問句（2）不帶有助動詞的一般疑問句（3）特殊疑問句4.5Sentences(theSrule)Sentencepatterns:.Det

NVDetNAboyfoundtheevidenceTraditionally:S→NPVPSNP(subject)VP(predicate)NPItassumesthatasentencedoesnothaveaninternalstructure:ahead,acomplementandaspecifier.4.5Sentences(theSrule).

Manylinguistsnowadays,however,believethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflection(dubbed‘Infl’屈折變化)isanabstract

categoryastheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stenseandagreement.(P52)

Present:S→NPInflVPInflP(=S)NPVPInflthesubject,asspecifierasheadascomplement.InflP(=S)DetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidencePstInflSNPVPNPheadInflrealizedbyatenselabel.DetNVDetNAboywillfindtheevidenceInflP(=S)NPVPNPSInflheadEx.3a,b,d,eP65Inflrealizedbyanauxiliary..Didtheboyfindtheevidence?Whatwillhedo?Atransformationisaspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother.Itcanbeinversion(倒置),insertion(插入)orotherkindsofmovement.4.6Transformations(轉(zhuǎn)換).4.6.1Auxiliarymovement(inversion)4.6.2

Doinsertion4.6.3Deepstructure&surfacestructure4.6.4Wh-movement4.6Transformations(轉(zhuǎn)換)(特殊疑問句)(不帶有助動詞的一般疑問句)(帶有助動詞的一般疑問句).InflP(=S)NPVPInflthesubject,asspecifierasheadascomplementAboywillfindtheevidence.Jimcanswimverywell.Willthetrainarrive?4.6.1Auxiliarymovement（助動詞）.CTheyes-noquestionstructurearebuiltintwosteps:Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.Step2:formayes-noquestionusinginversion(倒置).DetNVThetrainwillarriveNPVPSInfl

InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.complementizer(補語化成分)CPawordwhichintroducethesentencecomplement.

InversionMoveInfltoC.(P54)Willthetrainarrive?.Ccomplementclause(=S)complementphrases(CP)matrixclause(主句)

Ibelievedthat

shewasinnocent.

DetNVThetrainwillarriveNPVPSInflCCPAtrans-formationisaspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother..Pleaseanalyzethefollowingphrasebydrawingatreediagramforit:Shouldthestudentreporttheincident?CCPwillDetNVThetrainearriveNPVPSInflInfl(P55,Para.2&3)transformation(轉(zhuǎn)移)inversion(倒置)headmovement(中心語移位)e(empty)&atrace(語跡).Theyes-noquestionstructurearebuiltintwosteps:Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.(Doinsertionisneeded)Step2:formayes-noquestionusinginversion(倒置).BirdsflySNPInflVPDobirdsfly?NVdoDoinsertion---InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.doCCPInfle4.6.2Doinsertion.Considerthefollowingpairofsentences:

Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease.Consideronemoresentence:

Flyingplanescanbedangerous.

1)Ifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivity;2)

Planesthatareflyingaredangerous.Structurallysimilar/samesentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.4.6.3Deepstructure&surfacestructure（深層結(jié)構(gòu)）（表層結(jié)構(gòu)）=sb.pleasesJohn=Johnpleasessb..Deepstructure(orD-structure)

areformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorization(次范疇化)properties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.eg.

Thedogs(thathekeeps)

bites.

Thedogs(hekeepswhat)bitesSurfacestructure(orS-structure)

isthefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten..surfacestructure:itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.CCPwillDetNVThetrainearriveNPVPSInflInflWillthetrainarrive?DetNVThetrainwillarriveNPVPSInfldeepstructure:formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationpropertiesEx.8P66Ex.7P65.TheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentofthegrammarTheXPruleDeepstructuretransformationsSurfacestructureSubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements(P58)

.Considerthederivationofthefollowingsentences:

Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?

Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:

Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.deepstructures4.6.4Wh-movementsurfacestructures.Wh-movementMoveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguage

canyou

speak

?What

canyou

talkabout

?transformationinversioninversionwhmovementwhmovementLet’sanalyzethefollowingphrase:Whatshouldthestudentreport?Treediagram?.Wh-movementMoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)1.Whphraseascomplementofaverborpreposition;2.Whphraseasasubject;(P60)3.Whmovementinrelativeclauses.(P61)Whatwillyoutalkabout?Whowonthegame?youwilltalkaboutWhatThedog(thathekeeps)bites.Thedog(hekeepswhat)bites..CCPDetNNVNVThedoghekeepswhatbitesCPCNPInflSVPNPVPSInflDeepstructureWh-movement

Moveawhphrasetothespecifier

positionunderCP..DetNNNVNVThedogthathekeepsebitesSurfacestructureCCPCPCNPInflSVPNPVPSInflNPwhmovement..DetNVThejetlandedNPVPInflP(=S)PstInflheadEx.3(a)P65.NVDegAMariebecameveryill.NPVPAPInflP(=S)PstInflheadEx.3(b)P65.DetNAuxVDetNTheapplemighthitthemanNPEx.3(d)P65InflP(=S)InflheadNPVP.NQualVA