社會(huì)語言學(xué)-Chapter-6課件

Chapter6LinguisticandSocialInequality.Chapter6LinguisticandSocial16.1IntroductionQuestion:Aresomelanguagesordialectsinherentlybetterthanothers?Laypeople:Somevarietiesoflanguageareconsideredtobebetterthanothers.Linguists’opinion?.6.1Introduction.26.1LinguisticInequality6.1.1IntroductionEqualityamonglanguagesAlllanguagesareequal:nolanguageisinherently“better”thanothers.Eachvarietydisplayscharacteristicscommontoallhumanlanguage:complexandrule-governed.EqualityamongspeakersAllnormalpeopleareequalwithregardtotheirgrammars.Eveniftherearedifferencesbetweenthegrammarsoftwopeople,thereisnowayofknowingwhichhashigherprestigeinsocietysimplybystudyingthegrammars..6.1LinguisticInequality6.1.136.1LinguisticInequalityTherefore,linguisticsshouldbedescriptive,notprescriptive.ProblemoneItisharderthanmanylinguistsrealizetoavoidprescriptivism,sincethehistoricaldevelopmentoflinguistictheoryhasbeensocloselylinkedtothedescriptionofprestigiousvarietiessuchasstandardlanguages.Linguistshavestudiedstandardvarietiesfarmorethannon-standardvarieties..6.1LinguisticInequalityThere46.1LinguisticInequalityProblemtwoThedoctrineoflinguisticequalitydeflectsattentionfromlanguageasapossiblesourceofsocialinequality.Thereareidentifiabledifferencesbetweenpeopleofthesameageinaspectsoflanguagesuchasvocabulary,certainareasofsyntax,skillatusingspeechforcertaintasksandtheartsofreadingandwriting,whichcanonlybedescribedasexamplesofinequality..6.1LinguisticInequalityProbl56.1LinguisticInequalityLinguistsandlaypeoplediffer.Whenlinguistsmakeclaimsaboutlinguisticequality,theyarereferringtothebasiccoreoflanguagestructure,whichisthearealinguistictheoryhasbeenmostconcerned.Laypeopletakethebasiccorecompletelyforgranted,andaremoreconcernedwithmore‘peripheral’aspectssuchasvocabularyandregister-specificconstructions..6.1LinguisticInequalityLingu66.1LinguisticInequality6.1.2ThreetypesoflinguisticinequalitySubjectiveinequalityItconcernswhatpeoplethinkabouteachother’sspeech:somepeoplearecreditedwithmoreintelligence,friendlinessandothersuchvirtuesaccordingtothewaytheyspeak.Language,intheformofvarietydifferences,contributestosocialinequalitybybeingusedasayard-stickforevaluatingpeople,andbybeingahighlyunreliableyard-stick..6.1LinguisticInequality6.1.276.1LinguisticInequalityStrictlylinguisticinequalityItrelatestothelinguisticitemsthatapersonknows.Peopleofdifferentexperiencesknowdifferentrangesofitems.Somepeoplearemoreconfidentinusinganitemthanotherpeople,andthosewhodoknowitfarebetterinthosesocialsituationswhereitisneeded.Socialinequalityarisesoneachsuchoccasion.Someoccasionsaremoreimportantthanothersintheireffectsonoveralllife-chances.(educationvs.fishing).6.1LinguisticInequalityStric86.1LinguisticInequalityCommunicativeinequalityItisconcernedwithknowledgeofhowtouselinguisticitemstocommunicatesuccessfully,ratherthansimplywithknowledgeofthelinguisticitemsthemselves.Itreferstothekindofknowledgeorskillthatisneededwhenusingspeechtointeractwithotherpeople.Italsoincludesinequalitiesinthewaysinwhichspeakersselectvariantsoflinguisticvariablesinordertopresentafavorableimage,whichmeansthatcommunicativeinequalitysubsumessubjectiveinequality..6.1LinguisticInequalityCommu96.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.1Language-basedprejudiceItinvolvesprejudicesaboutparticularwaysofspeaking.Thisissociallyproblematicinthattheconclusionsmaybewrong.Wedoitbecauseweneedtheinformation,andwehavenobettersource.Alanguageprejudiceisacharacteristicwhichweexpectpeopletohavebecauseofthewaytheyspeak..6.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.1106.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.2EvaluationoflanguageWhenweevaluatespeechasrough,posh,effeminate,affectedandsoon,thisevaluationisbasedontheevaluationofthespeakers,andnotonthespeechformsthemselves.Themostimportantquestionsishowpeopleevaluatethedialectorlanguagethattheyspeakthemselves,becausethisiscloselyrelatedtotheirself-evaluation..6.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.2116.2SubjectiveinequalityLinguisticinsecurity:afeelingofinsecurityexperiencedbyspeakersorwritersaboutsomeaspectoftheirlanguageuseoraboutthevarietyoflanguagetheyspeak.Thismayresult,forinstance,inMODIFIEDSPEECH,whenspeakersattempttoaltertheirwayofspeaking.Modifiedspeech:atermusedbylinguiststodescribespeechwhichisdeliberatelychangedinanattempttomakeitsoundmoreeducatedorrefined.Thechangeisusuallytemporaryandthespeakerlapsesbacktohisorhernormalspeechpattern..6.2SubjectiveinequalityLingu126.2SubjectiveinequalityOvertprestige:theprestigeofthehigh-statusgrouprepresenting,symbolically,thewholecommunity.Covertprestige:thatofthelocal,non-prestigegroup..6.2SubjectiveinequalityOvert136.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.3StereotypesandhowtostudythemPeopleusethespeechofothersasacluetonon-linguisticinformationaboutthem,suchastheirsocialbackgroundandevenpersonalitytraits..6.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.3146.2SubjectiveinequalitySubjectivereactiontestThemethodofrecordingpeopletalkingwithtape-recorders.Thetapemighttypicallycontainadozenvoices,eachspeakingforaminuteorso.The‘subjects’(thepeoplewhosestereotypesarebeinginvestigated)areaskedtolistentothesevoices,oneatatime,andansweraquestionnaireabouteach.Theresultstypicallyshowcleardifferencesbothbetweenvoicesandbetweensubjects--differentvoicesevokedifferentstereotypesinthemindofthesameperson,whilstthesamevoicemaysuggestdifferentstereotypestodifferentpeople..6.2SubjectiveinequalitySubje156.2SubjectiveinequalityMatchedguisetechnique(instudiesoflanguageattitudes)theuseofrecordedvoicesofpeoplespeakingfirstinonedialectorlanguageandtheninanother;thatis,intwo‘guises’.Therecordingsareplayedtolistenerswhodonotknowthatthetwosamplesofspeecharefromthesameperson.Thereactionsofthelistenerstothespeakersinoneguisearecomparedtoreactionstotheotherguisetorevealattitudestowardsdifferentlanguageordialectgroups,whosemembersmaybeconsideredmoreorlessintelligent,friendly,co-operative,reliable,etc..6.2SubjectiveinequalityMatch166.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.4PrejudiceofteachersThereissomeevidencethatteachersbasetheirfirstimpressionofpupilsonspeech-formsinpreferencetoothersourcesofinformationwhichmightappeartobemorerelevant.Teachersareofatleasttwokinds:thosewhoevaluateonthebasisofstandardness,andthosewhopaymoreattentiontofluency..6.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.4176.2SubjectiveinequalityIfateacherexpectschildrentoperformpoorly,herbehaviortowardsthemmaybesuchastoencouragethemtodojustthat.Negativeexpectationsbytheteacherwillsimilarlyleadtonegativeperformancebythepupils..6.2SubjectiveinequalityIfa186.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.5PrejudiceofpupilsSomechildrenalreadyhavequitewell-developedlinguisticprejudicesbythetimetheygotoprimaryschool.Theteacher’saccentmayaffectthechildren’swillingnesstobeinfluencedbywhatshesays,andeventheirabilitytorememberit.Childrenwillpaymoreattentiontothingssaidinanaccentwhicharousestheirgrouployaltythaninonewhichdoesnot,andwillconsequentlyremembermoreoftheformer..6.2Subjectiveinequality6.2.5196.2SubjectiveinequalityItthusseemsthatthelinguisticprejudicesofbothteachersandpupilsarepotentialsourcesofseriousproblemsintheeducationprocess..6.2SubjectiveinequalityItth206.3Linguisticincompetence:strictlylinguisticinequalitydeficittheory(deficithypothesis)

thetheorythatthelanguageofsomechildrenmaybelackinginvocabulary,grammar,orthemeansofexpressingcomplexideas,andmaythereforebeinadequateasabasisforsuccessinschool.Linguistshavecriticizedthishypothesisandcontrasteditwiththedifferencehypothesis,whichstatesthatalthoughthelanguageofsomechildren(e.g.childrenfromcertainsocialandethnicgroups)maybedifferentfromthatofmiddle-classchildren,alldialectsareequallycomplexandchildrencanusethemtoexpresscomplexideasandtoformabasisforschoollearning..6.3Linguisticincompetence:s216.3Linguisticincompetence:strictlylinguisticinequalityThedeficithypothesisisdangerousnonsense:nonsensebecauseitissimplynottruethatanynormalchildrenaresoshortoflanguage,anddangerousbecauseitcandistractattentionfromtherealshortcomingsofmanyschoolsystemsbyputtingtheblameforeducationalfailureoninadequaciesofthechild..6.3Linguisticincompetence:s226.3Linguisticincompetence:strictlylinguisticinequalityItshouldberememberedthatnotwospeakersknowpreciselythesamerangeofvocabularyandsyntacticconstructions,sowecannotruleoutthepossibilitythatsomesuchdifferencesarerelevanttosuccessatschool.Wells’(1981)confirmedthatchildrenareunequalfromastrictlylinguisticpointofview,andthatatleastsomeoftheinequalityisduetotheirexperiences..6.3Linguisticincompetence:s236.3Linguisticincompetence:strictlylinguisticinequalityItseemslikelythat,althoughsomechildrenlearnacademicwords(thevocabularythatteacherusewhenteaching)athome,othersmaynot,whichleavesthematadisadvantagewhentheyfirstmeetthewordsatschool,andthefactthatsomechildrendounderstandthewordsmayblindtheteachertotheneedtoexplainthem..6.3Linguisticincompetence:s246.3Linguisticincompetence:strictlylinguisticinequalityAtoneextremearechildrenwhoarefullycompetentinalanguage,butnotinthelanguageo