托福口語(yǔ)素材積累

托福口語(yǔ)素材積累托?？谡Z(yǔ)考試不僅僅是一個(gè)考試，如想順利地通過(guò)新托?？谡Z(yǔ)考試，真正憑借的將不再是“正誤選擇劃勾”(正確幾率占25%)的能力，而是自如駕馭語(yǔ)言實(shí)現(xiàn)交流的真本事!以下是小編整理的關(guān)于托福口語(yǔ)素材積累，希望大家認(rèn)真閱讀~?OneducationofCharacter?論性格的教育?Whenitissoughttoproduceacertainkindofbehaviorinachildoranimal,therearetwodifferenttechniqueswhichmaybefollowed.Wemay,ontheonehand,bymeansofrewardsandpunishmentscausethechildoranimaltoperformorabstainfromcertainpreciseacts;orwemay,ontheotherhand,seektoproduceinthechildoranimalsuchemotionsaswilllead,onthewhole,toactsofthekinddesired.?如果想在兒童或動(dòng)物身上產(chǎn)生某種行為，可以有兩種不同的方法。一方面，我們可以用獎(jiǎng)罰的方法來(lái)使兒童或動(dòng)物執(zhí)行或回避某種明確的行為;另外一方面，我們也可以努力在兒童或動(dòng)物身上產(chǎn)生能夠在整體上導(dǎo)向被期望行為的感情。?Byasuitabledistributionofrewardsandpunishments,itispossibletocontrolaverylargepartofovertbehavior.Bythismethodboyswhoarenaturallytimidcanacquirephysicalcourage,andchildrenwhoaresensitivetopaincanbetaughtastoicalendurance.Goodmanners,ifnotimposedearlier,canbelearntinadolescencebymeansofnoworsepunishmentthanthecontemptuousliftingofaneyebrow.Whatiscalled‘goodform’isacquiredbyalmostallwhoareexposedtoit,merelyfromfearofthebadopinionincurredbyinfringingit.Thosewhohavebeentaughtfromanearlyagetofearthedispleasureoftheirgroupastheworstofmisfortuneswilldieonthebattlefield,inawarofwhichtheyunderstandnothing,ratherthansufferthecontemptoffools.?通過(guò)對(duì)獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)和懲罰的適當(dāng)分配，大量外在的行為是可以被控制的。通過(guò)這種方法，生來(lái)膽小的男孩能夠養(yǎng)成生理上的勇氣，對(duì)疼痛敏感的孩子可以變得能仍受疼痛。好的舉止如果在孩童時(shí)期沒(méi)有灌輸進(jìn)去，青春期仍可以學(xué)到，而且只需輕蔑的一抬眉毛這樣并不嚴(yán)重的懲罰手段。所謂‘好樣的’行為，幾乎每個(gè)耳濡目染的人都可以養(yǎng)成，因?yàn)樗ε逻`反它招來(lái)非議。那些從小就被教導(dǎo)要把圈內(nèi)的不悅視為最大不幸的人們，即使面對(duì)的是他們一點(diǎn)都不理解的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，也寧愿戰(zhàn)死沙場(chǎng)，而不愿受愚人的白眼。?Asasocialforce,thebehavioristmethodof‘conditioning’isthereforeverypowerfulandverysuccessful.Itcananddoescausementoactinwaysquitedifferentfromthoseinwhichtheywouldotherwisehaveacted,anditiscapableofproducinganimpressiveuniformityofovertbehavior.Nevertheless,ithasitslimitations.(之前全部是讓步，這里Nevertheless后面才開(kāi)始進(jìn)入文章要探討的核心)?因此，作為一種社會(huì)力量，行為主義的‘條件作用’的方法是非常有力，非常成功的。它能夠而且確實(shí)使人們的行為方式大不同于那些未經(jīng)此法教育的人們的行為方式，它所能帶來(lái)的外在行為的一致性也確實(shí)令人驚嘆。不過(guò)，它也有它的局限。?ItwasthroughFreudthattheselimitationsfirstbecameknowninascientificmanner,thoughmenofpsychologicalinsighthadlongagoperceivedtheminanintuitiveway.Forourpurposes,theessentialdiscoveryofpsycho-analysisisthis:thatanimpulsewhichisprevented,bybehavioristmethods,formfindingovertexpressioninaction,doesnotnecessarilydie,butisdrivenunderground,andfindssomenewoutletwhichhasnotbeeninhibitedbytraining.Oftenthenewoutletwillbemoreharmfulthantheonethathasbeenprevented,andinanycasethedeflectioninvolvesemotionaldisturbanceandunprofitableexpenditureofenergy.Itisthereforenecessarytopaymoreattentiontoemotion,asopposedtoovertbehavior,thanisdonebythosewhoadvocateconditioningasalonesufficientinthetrainingofcharacter.(文章主旨在這里：需要對(duì)情感給予更多的關(guān)注)?通過(guò)弗洛伊德，人們破天荒地可以用科學(xué)的態(tài)度來(lái)認(rèn)識(shí)這些局限了，雖然它們?cè)诤芫靡郧熬捅恍睦韺W(xué)家的直覺(jué)所洞察到了。就我們的目的而論，心理分析的發(fā)現(xiàn)的要點(diǎn)是：被行為主義的方法阻止而無(wú)法獲得公開(kāi)表現(xiàn)的沖動(dòng)，并不一定會(huì)死去，而是轉(zhuǎn)入了下意識(shí)，并會(huì)找到未在獎(jiǎng)罰中受到禁止的新的發(fā)泄渠道。通常新的渠道比被堵住的渠道更加有害，而且總會(huì)帶來(lái)情緒上的紊亂和精力上的浪費(fèi)。因此，有必要對(duì)與外在行為相對(duì)的情感因素予以更多的關(guān)注，那些主張條件作用對(duì)培養(yǎng)性格就足夠的人們?cè)谶@方面是做的不夠的。?Thereare,moreover,someundesirablehabitsinregardtowhichthemethodofrewardsandpunishmentsfailscompletely,evenformitsownpointofview.(進(jìn)一步論述，僅僅使用賞罰的手段去培養(yǎng)習(xí)慣是失敗的)Oneoftheseisbed-wetting.Whenthispersistsbeyondtheageatwhichitusuallystops,punishmentonlymakesitmoreobstinate.Althoughthisfacthaslongbeenknowntopsychologists,itisstillunknowntomostschoolmasters,whoforyearsonendpunishboyshavingthishabit,withoutevernoticingthatthepunishmentdoesnotproducereform.Thecauseofthehabit,inolderboys,isusuallysomedeep-seatedunconsciouspsychologicaldisturbance,whichmustbebroughttothesurfacebeforeacurecanbeeffected.?另外，獎(jiǎng)罰法用來(lái)對(duì)付有些不好的習(xí)慣時(shí)是完全失敗的，甚至從獎(jiǎng)罰法自身的觀點(diǎn)看也是如此。尿床就是這樣一個(gè)習(xí)慣。如果孩子過(guò)了通常應(yīng)該不再尿床的年齡仍在尿床，懲罰只會(huì)使尿床更難治愈。雖然心理學(xué)家早就知道了這個(gè)事實(shí)，它仍不為多數(shù)教師所知，他們年復(fù)一年地懲罰那些尿床的孩子，卻從未注意到這并不起作用。在較為年長(zhǎng)的孩子中，這一習(xí)慣常常是由深層的無(wú)意識(shí)的心理紊亂所引起的，只有認(rèn)清這一點(diǎn)，治療才會(huì)有效。?Thesamekindofpsychologicalmechanismappliesinmanylessobviousinstance.Inthecaseofdefinitenervousdisordersthisisnowwidelyrecognized.(進(jìn)一步舉證無(wú)法通過(guò)獎(jiǎng)賞和懲罰的手段來(lái)處理的，由心理機(jī)制引發(fā)的問(wèn)題)Kleptomania,forexample,isnotuncommoninchildren,and,unlikeordinarythieving,itcannotbecuredbypunishment,butonlybyascertainingandremovingitspsychologicalcause.Whatislessrecognizedisthatweallsuffer,toagreaterorlessdegree,fromnervousdisordershavinganemotionalorigin.Amaniscalledsanewhenheisassaneastheaverageofhiscontemporaries;butintheaveragemanmanyofthemechanismswhichdeterminehisopinionsandactionsarequitefantastic,somuchsothatinaworldofrealsanitytheywouldbecalledinsane.Itisdangeroustoproducegoodsocialbehaviorbymeanswhichleavetheanti-socialemotionsuntouched.Solongastheseemotions,whilepersisting,aredeniedalloutlet,theywillgrowstrongerandstronger,leadingtoimpulsesofcrueltywhichwillatlastbecomeirresistible.Inthemanofweakwill,theseimpulsesmaybreakoutincrime,orinsomeformofbehaviortowhichsocialpenaltiesareattached.Inthemanofstrongwill,theytakeevenmoreundesirableforms.Hemaybeatyrantinthehome,ruthlessinbusiness,bellicoseinpolitics,persecutinginhissocialmorality;forallthesequalitiesothermenwithsimilardefectsofcharacterwilladmirehim;hewilldieuniversallyrespected,afterhavingspreadhatredandmiseryoveracity,anation,oranepochaccordingtohisabilityandhisopportunities.Correctbehaviorcombinedwithbademotionsisnotenough,therefore,tomakeamanacontributortothehappinessofmankind.Ifthisisourcriterionofdesirableconduct,somethingmoremustbesoughtintheeducationofcharacter.?同樣的心理機(jī)制也適用于許多不那么顯著的例子。在明確的神經(jīng)失常的情形中，這一點(diǎn)已得到廣泛的認(rèn)同。例如，盜竊癖在孩子中并不少見(jiàn);它與通常意義上的盜竊的不同之處在于，治愈它不能通過(guò)懲罰，而只能通過(guò)查明和消除它的心理誘因。人們認(rèn)識(shí)不足的是，我們都或多或少地有點(diǎn)神經(jīng)失調(diào)，這種失調(diào)有著情感上的根源。如果一個(gè)人與他同時(shí)代的普通人一樣甚至健全，他就會(huì)被認(rèn)為是神智健全的人;但在一個(gè)普通人那里，決定他言行的許多機(jī)制也是非常莫名其妙的，所以這樣的人在一個(gè)真正神智健全的世界里仍要被認(rèn)作是神智不健全的人。想不觸動(dòng)反社會(huì)的情感而產(chǎn)生良好的社會(huì)行為，是很危險(xiǎn)的。只要這些情感還存在，就不能堵死他們的所有出口，否則他們將會(huì)越來(lái)越強(qiáng)烈，最終導(dǎo)致無(wú)法抗拒的殘酷沖動(dòng)。在意志堅(jiān)強(qiáng)的人那里，這些沖動(dòng)可能爆發(fā)為犯罪，或其他社會(huì)必須予以處罰的行為。在意志堅(jiān)強(qiáng)的人那里，則可能表現(xiàn)為更壞的形式。他可能在家中是個(gè)暴君，在商業(yè)中是個(gè)無(wú)情者，在政治上是個(gè)好斗者，在社會(huì)道德的意義上是個(gè)迫害狂;所有這些品格都會(huì)使他受到與他具有相似性格缺陷的人們的羨慕;他播下的仇恨和不幸遍及一座城市，一個(gè)國(guó)家，甚至一個(gè)時(shí)代---這取決于他的能力和機(jī)遇;他在死亡時(shí)會(huì)受到普遍的尊重。因此，一個(gè)人光有適當(dāng)?shù)男袨?，如果他有一顆壞心，是不足以對(duì)人類(lèi)的幸福有所貢獻(xiàn)的。如果衡量好的行為的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是人類(lèi)的幸福，就需要在性格教育中作出更多的努力。?Experienceofchildrenshowsthatitispossibletooperateuponfeeling,andnotonlyuponoutwardbehavior,bygivingchildrenanenvironmentinwhichdesirableemotionsshallbecomecommonandundesirableemotionsrare.(從情感的培養(yǎng)的角度談，對(duì)兒童心理狀態(tài)的影響)Throughoutchildhood,thoughtoacontinuallydiminishingextent,thereisneedofthefeelingofsafety.Forthispurpose,kindnessandapleasantroutinearetheessentials.Therelationwithadultsshouldbeoneofplayandphysicalease,butnotofemotionalactresses.Thereshouldbecloseintimacywithotherchildren.Aboveall,thereshouldbeopportunityforinitiativeinconstruction,inexploration,andinintellectualandartisticdirection.Thechildhastwooppositeneeds,safetyandfreedom,ofwhichthelattergraduallygrowsattheexpenseoftheformer.Theaffectiongivenbyadultsshouldbesuchastocauseafeelingofsafety,butontosuchastolimitfreedomortoarouseadeepemotionalresponseinthechild.Play,whichisavitalneedofchildhood,shouldbecontributednotonlybyotherchildren,butalsobyparents,andisessentialtothebestrelationbetweenparentsandchildren.?從兒童哪里得到的經(jīng)驗(yàn)表明，如果能為孩子們創(chuàng)造一個(gè)環(huán)境：好的情感很普遍，壞的情感很罕見(jiàn)，就可能會(huì)對(duì)他們的內(nèi)心發(fā)生作用，而不只是對(duì)外在的行為起作用。在整個(gè)兒童期，都需要有安全感，盡管其程度逐步減少。慈愛(ài)和一個(gè)愉快的生活氛圍對(duì)于安全感是至關(guān)重要的。小孩與大人的關(guān)系應(yīng)是一種游戲的關(guān)系，小孩要感到很自在，但又不能被溺愛(ài)。小孩之間應(yīng)該有親密關(guān)系。尤其重要的是，小孩應(yīng)該有機(jī)會(huì)主動(dòng)進(jìn)行建設(shè)性，探索性，有智力和藝術(shù)成分的活動(dòng)。小孩有兩種相反的需求：安全和自由，后者的逐步發(fā)展以犧牲前者為代價(jià)。大人給予的愛(ài)必須既能產(chǎn)生安全感，又不致于限制自由，也不致于引起小孩很深的情緒反應(yīng)。游戲是孩子們的頭等需求，不但孩子之間需要玩游戲，父母也應(yīng)該加入進(jìn)來(lái)，這對(duì)于培養(yǎng)父母和孩子間的良好關(guān)系是很關(guān)鍵的。?Iamnotanadvocateofabsolutefreedom,butIamanadvocateofcertainformsoffreedomwhichmostadultsfindunendurable.Thereshouldbenoenforcedrespectforgrow-ups,whoshouldallowthemselvestobecalledfoolswheneverchildrenwishtocallthemso.Wecannotpreventourchildrenfromthinkingusfoolsbymerelyforbiddingthemtouttertheirthoughts;infact,theyaremorelikelytothinkillofusiftheydarenotsayso.Childrenshouldnotbeforbiddentoswear—notbecauseitisdesirablethattheyshouldswear,butbecauseitisdesirablethattheyshouldthinkthatitdoesnotmatterwhethertheydoornot,sincethisisatrueproposition.Theyshouldbefreeentirelyfromthese