《項目管理》教學(xué)大綱

PAGEPAGE3《項目管理》（英文）教學(xué)大綱課程編號：021422B課程類型：□通識教育必修課□通識教育選修課□學(xué)科基礎(chǔ)課√專業(yè)核心課□專業(yè)提升課□專業(yè)拓展課總學(xué)時：32講課學(xué)時：26實驗（上機）學(xué)時：6學(xué)分：2考試類型：□考試√考查適用對象：工商管理大類、物流管理、電子商務(wù)專業(yè)√是□否適合作為其他專業(yè)學(xué)生的個性化選修課先修課程：無一、課程的教學(xué)目標(biāo)"ProjectManagement"isacourseofundergraduatestudentsmajor.inmanagement.Thiscourseintroducesashortoverviewofthemodernhistoryofprojectmanagement,theprocessforselectingprojectsfororganizationsandtechniquesforevaluatingandmakingtheselection;theprocessandthemethodofcontrollingthebudget,schedule,andperformanceduringtheprojectlifecycle.Also,thiscourseprovidesabundantofcasestudiesfordiscussion.TheideologicalandpoliticalteachingobjectiveofthecourseistointroduceChina'sadvancedexperienceinprojectmanagementandlarge-scaleprojectsintherecent5decades.Inparticular,therapiddevelopmentofinfrastructurebroughtbyefficientprojectmanagementtoremindstudentstolovetheircountryandfamilyandcontributetotheconstructionofthemotherland.二、教學(xué)基本要求教學(xué)內(nèi)容課程的重點內(nèi)容包括：ProjectsinContemporaryOrganizations,StrategicManagementandProjectSelection,TheProjectManager,NegotiationandtheManagementofConflict,TheProjectintheOrganizationalStructure,ProjectActivityPlanning,BudgetingandCostEstimation,Scheduling,ResourceAllocation,MonitoringandInformationSystems,ProjectControl,ProjectAuditing,ProjectTermination.（二）教學(xué)方法和手段UsePowerPointtoassistantLectureteaching,inclasscasesdiscussion,termprojectpresentation,andcomputerusedsimulationexperiments.（三）考核方式Thefinalgradeswillbedeterminedfromthefollowingthreeaspects:1. Mid-termproject(WrittenandOral)30%2. Attendance 10%3. FinalProject(Written)60% （四）學(xué)習(xí)要求Preparebeforelessons,jointheclassdiscussions,finishhomework,andfulfillalltherequirements.三、各教學(xué)環(huán)節(jié)學(xué)時分配教學(xué)課時分配No.Contents講課實驗其它合計1ProjectsinContemporaryOrganizations222StrategicManagementandProjectSelection223TheProjectManager224NegotiationandtheManagementofConflict225TheProjectintheOrganizationalStructure226

ProjectActivityPlanning2247BudgetingandCostEstimation2248Scheduling2249ResourceAllocation2210MonitoringandInformationSystems2211ProjectControl2212ProjectAuditing2213ProjectTermination22合計266032四、教學(xué)內(nèi)容Chapter1Overview–Thissectionprovidesashortoverviewofthemodernhistoryofprojectmanagement.ManyofthenowacceptedpracticesofprojectmanagementwereactuallyfirstdevelopedbytheUSGovernmenttofurtherthedevelopmentofcomplexweaponssystemsandspacehardware.ForcesFosteringProjectManagement–Threeforcesfostertheeverexpandinguseofprojectmanagement:TheexpansionofknowledgetothepointwherenoindividualcangrasptheknowledgenecessarytocreatethegoodsandservicesdemandedbymodernsocietyThecontinuingdemandforevenmorecomplexgoodsandservices,wheretheuserdemandsperfectionwithouthavingtoreadtheusersmanual.Worldwidecompetitionamongtheprovidersofgoodsandservicesforcingtheneedtounderstandlocalmarkets.ThreeProjectObjectives–Projectsareconsideredsuccessfuliftheymeetthestatedobjectiveswithincostandschedulegoals.Theprojectmanagermustbemindful,however,ofthesetofoften-unstatedgoalsthatformthefourthobjective,namely:theexpectationsoftheclient.TheProjectManager–Thecomplexitiesofprojectmanagementcoupledwiththeincreasedrecognitionofthenecessityforprojectshaveleadtoastronomicalgrowthintheprofessionalsocietydevotedtoprojectmanagement,theProjectManagementInstitute(PMI).PMI,throughitseffortstodefineandstandardizethebodyofknowledge,hasmadeasignificantcontributiontoestablishingprojectmanagementasatrueprofession.RecentChangesinManagingOrganizations–Threerevolutionarychangeshaveimpactedthewayorganizationsaremanaged:Thereplacementoftraditionalhierarchicalmanagementwithmoreconsensualforms.Theincreasingadoptionofthe“systemsengineering”approachtoproblemsolving.Theestablishmentofprojectsasthepreferredwaytoaccomplishtheorganizationsgoals.TheDefinitionofa“Project”–Thissectiondescribesthecommoncharacteristicsofaprojectusedtodistinguishprojectsfromothertypesofwork.Importance–Asuccessfulprojectmusthavecommitmentfromseniormanagement.Theymustthinkit’simportanttodoanddoasaproject.Performance–Theprojectmusthaveawell-definedsetofgoals.LifeCyclewithaFiniteDueDate–Typicalprojectshaveaslowbeginning,mostactivityinthemiddleandthentaperofftoafinish.Realprojectshaveanending,thoughitmaybeobscuredbypoorlydefinedgoalsormanagementtechniques.Interdependencies–Projectactivitiesinteractwitheachotherandwithotherprojects,groupsandactivitieswithintheorganization.Uniqueness–Everyproject,evenonesthatseemroutineproduceauniqueresult.Resources–Mostprojectsoperatewithinanenvironmentoflimitedresources,includingtime,moneyandpeople.Conflict–Alloftheothercharacteristicscontributetothefinalcharacteristic,conflict.Unfortunately,projectmanagershavetodealwithmanytypesofconflictincluding:Conflictsbetweencustomersandtheprojectteamoverrequirements.Conflictswithintheprojectteamoverapproachandprocess.Conflictsbetweentheprojectmanagerandhisorhermanagementovercostandschedule.Conflictsbetweentheprojectmanagersandothermanagerswhocontroltheresourcesthattheprojectmanagerneeds.NonprojectsandQuasiProjects–Routinetasksarenotconsideredprojectsbecausetheyareperformedoverandoveragain.Projects,ontheotherhand,areone-timeevents.Quasi-projectsarethosethatdonothaveaspecifictaskidentified,nospecificbudget,andnospecificdeadlinedefined.Althoughtherearesomeuncertainties,projectmanagementskillscanstillbeusedtomanagethem.WhyProjectManagement?–Whileprojectmanagementhaslimitations,mostorganizationsreceiverealbenefitsfromitsuse.Benefitsincludebettercontrol,bettercustomerrelations,increaseinprojects’returnoninvestment,etc.Projectmanagementisnoteasy;fortheparticipants(toparaphraseChurchill)itmayseemtobetheworstformofmanagementexceptalltheothersthathavebeentried.Inspiteofthat,projectmanagementisagrowingcareerpathwhichishighlyrewarding.TheProjectLifeCycle–Thissectiondescribesthetypicallifecycleofmostprojects.Commonlyprojectshaveaslowstart,abusymiddleandaslowend.Whenthispatternisgraphedaspercentcompleteversustime,itresultsintheclassicS-shapedlifecyclecurvedepictedinFigure1-3.Someprojectsfollowadifferentpattern,particularlyiftheyinvolveintegrationandtestingofdisparatepartsattheend.RiskDuringtheLifeCycle–Riskoruncertaintychangesthroughoutthelifecycleofaproject.Atthestart,thereisthelargestamountofuncertaintyabouttheoutcomesattheend.Astimepasses,theendpointcanbepredictedwithmoreandmoreaccuracy.TheStructureofThisText–Thisbookisarrangedtofollowthelifecycleofaproject,beginningwithprojectinitiation,whichincludestopicsonstartup,organizationandproposals.Thesecondpartcoversprojectimplementationincludingplanning,scheduling,budgetingandcontrollingprojects.Thefinalpartdiscussesprojecttermination.Throughoutthetextemphasizestheimportanceofmanagingbothpeopleandrisks.Chapter21) Overview–Thischapterdiscussestheprocessforselectingwhichofthemanyprojectsaorganizationcouldpursue,itshouldpursue.Itintroducestechniquesforevaluatingandmakingtheselection.Thechapteralsointroducesconceptsofriskandappliesthemtotheanalysistypicallyperformedduringtheprojectselectionprocess.2) ProjectManagementMaturity–Manyorganizationsusematuritymodelstodeterminetheirlevelofmasteryofprojectmanagementprocessesandskills.3) ProjectSelectionandCriteriaofChoice–Organizationsshoulduseconsistentandrationaltoolstoselectamongthemyriadofprojectsfromwhichtheyhavetochoose.Therearemanymodelsfortheselectionprocesstochoosefromaswell.Goodcriteriaforchoosingtheselectionmodelare:4) TheNatureofProjectSelectionModels–Modelsareusefultoolstoaiddecisionmaking.Theyarenot,however,thedecisionmaker,nordotheyevercompletelyrepresenttherealityconfrontingmodernorganizations.Anycriteriadevelopedforprojectselectionshouldbeweightedtorepresentthedegreetowhichthatfactorcontributestotheorganization’sgoals.5) TypesofProjectSelectionModelsa) NonnumericModels–Thesemodelsdonotattempttoreducetheevaluationprocesstonumbers,butinsteadlookatotherfactorsthatmakefor“obvious”choicesforthatorganization.Thiscouldincludeseniormanagementmandatesandregulatorynecessities.ExamplesincludeTheSacredCow,TheOperatingNecessity,TheCompetitiveNecessity,TheProductLineExtension,andComparativeBenefitModel.b) NumericModels:Profit/Profitability–Thesemodelsanalyzethepotentialprojectsintermsofthesinglecriteriaofmonetaryreturn.Theanalysismayormaynotincludethetimevalueofmoney.TheseincludetraditionalmeasuressuchasPaybackPeriod,DiscountedCashFlow(alsoreferredtoasNetPresentValue),IRR,andProfitabilityIndex.c) NumericModels:Scoring–Thesemodelsanalyzethepotentialprojectsbasedonmultiplecriteriatheorganizationselects.Themodelsusenumericscalestoratetheprojectsagainstthedesiredcriteria.Thentheratingscanbeanalyzedusingvarioustechniquestodeterminethebestchoices.ExamplesincludeUweighted0-1FactorModel,UnweightedFactorScoringModel,WeightedFactorScoringModel,andWindowofOpportunityAnalysis.d) ChoosingaProjectSelectionModel–Theauthorsstronglyfavorusingweightedscoringmodels.6) AnalysisUnderUncertainty–TheManagementofRisk–Thetextdistinguishesbetweenriskanduncertainty.Riskappliestoeventsthathaveaknown(orestimated)probabilityofoccurrence.Uncertaintyappliestoeventswherethereisinsufficientdatatoestimatetheprobabilityofoccurrence.Foreffectiveprojectmanagement,decisionsshouldbetreatedasrisksratherthanuncertainties.Thatisprobabilitiesofoccurrence,ifnototherwiseknown,shouldbeestimatedforrelevantissuesandevents.a) RiskAnalysisandSimulation–Thetechniquesofriskanalysisandsimulationareapplicabletoseveralareasofprojectmanagementincludingcost,scheduleandresource.SoftwareproductsmakeMonteCarlosimulationrelativelyeasytoperforminconjunctionwithspreadsheetsdevelopedforprojectselectionandanalysis.b) GeneralSimulationAnalysis–SimulationcanbeusedtoestimatethenetpresentvalueresultingfromprospectiveR&Dprojects.Overheadcostsaregenerallynotrelevanttothedecisionandcanbeeliminatedfromtheanalysis.Simulationsoftwarehasnoopinionconcerningthequalityofthedataorassumptionsusedtofeeditsoresultsmustalwaysbeusedwithcaution.c) PsychoCeramicSciencesRevisited–ThetexthasalengthyanddetailedexampleoftheuseofCrystalBall?fortheestimateofnetpresentvalueinanenvironmentofrisk.7) CommentsontheInformationBaseforSelection–Tousetheseselectiontechniquessuccessfullyadatabaseofrelevantinputdatamustbecreatedandmaintained.a) AccountingData–Managersneedtounderstandtheassumptionsbehindaccountingdatatoinsureitsrelevancetotheprojectselectionprocess.Inparticular,standardcostmodelsandthemethodsusedtoallocateoverheadshouldbewellunderstood.b) Measurements–Estimationofexpectedperformanceagainstselectioncriteriainvolvesdifferenttypesofmeasurement.Theactualusefulnessofthedifferenttypesisoftencounterintuitivetomanypeople’sbeliefs.Ingeneral,measurementsmustbenumeric,reliableandvalid.i) Subjectivevs.Objective–Subjectivemeasurementsarethosewithoutanexternalreference.AnexamplewouldbethejudgingofgymnasticsattheOlympics.Subjectivemeasuresarenotinherentlyworsethanobjectiveones.ii) Quantitativevs.Qualitative–Quantitiescanbeaddedtogetherbutqualitiescannot.Theamountofwaterinabucketisquantitative;itsdensityisqualitative.Qualitativemeasuresarenotinherentlyworsethanquantitative.iii) Reliablevs.Unreliable–Measurementsarereliableiftheyarerepeatable.iv) Validvs.Invalid–Validmeasuresaccuratelydepictmeaningofthemeasurement.c) UncertainInformation–Techniquesusedtodeterminenumericweightsandcriteriascoresforprojectselectioncanalsobeusedforinputstoriskanalysismodels.8) ProjectPortfolioProcess(PPP)–TheProjectPortfolioProcessisusedtoconsistentlyandtransparentlyselectprojectsthatmatchtheorganization’sgoals.Theprocesshaseightsteps:a) Step1:EstablishaProjectCouncil–Thecouncilisestablishedtoarticulatestrategicdirectionandallocatefundstoprojectsitselects.b) Step2:IdentifyProjectCategoriesandCriteria–CategoriesareestablishedbytheCounciltoinsurethatavarietyofprojectsarepursued.Criteriaformeasuringprospectiveprojectsareestablishedtoformtheframeworkfortheselectionprocess.Commoncategoriesusedforclassifyingprojectsare:i) Derivativeprojects–Projectsthatareonlyincrementallydifferentfrompreviousefforts.ii) Platformprojects–Projectsthatimpactorganizationoutputsortheprocessesthatcreatethem.iii) Breakthroughprojects–Projectsthatinvolveimplementingnew,sometimes“disruptive”technology.iv) R&Dprojects–Projectsusedtoacquirenewknowledgeorcreatenewtechnology.c) Step3:CollectProjectData–Collectrelevantdataandassignscorestoprospectiveprojects.d) Step4:AssessResourceAvailability–Analyzetheavailabilityofresourcestoexecutetheprospectiveprojects.e) Step5:ReducetheProjectandCriteriaSet–Usemultiplescreenstonarrowdownthenumberofprojectsunderconsideration.f) Step6:PrioritizetheProjectswithinCategories–Usingtheanalysisdeveloped,prioritizetheprojectswithinthepreviouslyidentifiedcategories.Thisagainistoensurethatavarietyofprojectsarepursued,notjustthetopfewfromasingle,prioritizedlist.g) Step7:SelecttheProjectstobeFundedandHeldinReserve–Thebestprojectswithineachcategoryareselectedforimplementation,holdingsomeprojectsandsomeresourcesinreserve.h) Step8:ImplementtheProcess–Theresultsoftheprocessmustberecorded,andthenwidelycommunicatedwithintheorganization.9) ProjectProposals–Thissectionintroducesthedocumentationnecessarytopresentaprospectiveprojecttoaselectionprocess.ThetextequatestheinternalprojectselectionprocesswiththatofaprospectivecustomerusingaRequestforProposal(RFP)orRequestforQuote(RFQ)process.Thisissomewhatmisleading,asorganizationsshouldhavemadeacarefulinternalanalysis(sometimesknownasabid/nobiddecision)beforesubmittingaproposaltoacustomer.Inotherwords,theprojectisproposedtwice:firstinternallytotheorganizationtowinsupport,andthen,ifit’sa“bid,”externallytothecustomertowinthejob.Theproposaldocumentationrequiredbythecustomerismuchdifferentthanthatneededfortheinternalanalysis.Infact,partofthebid/nobidanalysisisevaluatingthecosttopreparetheRFPorRFQknowingthattheorganizationcouldlose.Forlargemilitaryorspaceprojectsthepreparationcostscanrunintothemillionsofdollars.Regardlessofwhetherit’sforinternalorexternalconsumptions,orforatechnicalornon-technicalproject,theproposalshouldbepreparedwithcare.a) TheTechnicalApproach–Thissectionsummarizeswhattheproblemisandhowitwillbeapproachedbytheproject.b) TheImplementationPlan–Thissectionsummarizestheschedule,costandresourcesestimatedtocompletetheproject.c) ThePlanforLogisticSupportandAdministration–Thissectionsummarizesthesupportthattheprojectwillneedandhowitwillbeadministered.Chapter31) Overview–Thischapterdiscussesthemanychallengesfacingtheprojectmanager.Toillustratethemostchallengingenvironment,theauthorsassumethattheprojectmanager(PM)isworkingforalarge,functionallyorganizedfirmthathasmanyprojectsrunningatthesametime.2) ProjectManagementandtheProjectManagera) TheFunctionalManagerversustheProjectManager–SometypicaldifferencesbetweenthefunctionalmanagerandthePMhelpillustratetheroleofthePM.Thefunctionalmanagerisatechnicalspecialistintheareaheorshemanagesandthatexpertiseisabigreasonheorsheisthemanager.Thefunctionalmanagerapproachesproblemsbybreakingthingsdowntounderstandthemandcandirectatechnicalsolutionbasedonhisorherknowledgeandexperience.ThePM,ontheotherhand,isageneralistwhotakesthesystemsapproachtosolvingproblems.ThePMfacilitatesproblemsolvingratherthandirectingsolutions.b) ProjectResponsibilities–ThePM’sresponsibilitiescanbedividedintothreebroadareas:i) Responsibilitytotheparentorganization–Thisistheresponsibilitytomakegooduseoftheorganization’sresources.Itincludeskeepingtheparentorganizationwellinformedonthestatusoftheproject.ii) Responsibilitytotheproject-Thisistheresponsibilitytoinsurethattheprojectmeetsthecustomer’sneedsinspiteofalltheconflictingdemandsthatthePMmustdealwith.iii) Responsibilitytotheprojectteam–Thisistheresponsibilitytomanagetheprojectteamwell.Thisincludesgoodcommunicationsandhelpingthemtransitionoutoftheprojectwhenitcompletes.c) PMCareerPaths–ThetypicalPMisoftenthrustintothisnewrolewithoutanyformaltraining.MoreorganizationsarerecognizingthebenefitofarealcareerpathforPMswhichincludesstartingonsmallprojectsandworkinguptobigones.3) SpecialDemandsontheProjectManager–ThePMmustdealwithdemandsthatareuniquetotheprojectmanagementenvironment.a) AcquiringAdequateResources–Projectbudgetsaretypicallycutastheyworkupthemanagementchain.Thismaybeforlegitimatebusinessreasonsorsimplyunderthebeliefthattheoriginalestimatewaspadded.Asaresult,thePMusuallystartswithabudgetthatissmallerthanrequested.b) AcquiringandMotivatingPersonnel–Projectteammembersaretypicallyborrowedfromfunctionalorganizations.Thefunctionalmanagerdoesnotwanttoloanhisorherbestpeople,whoareprobablyoverbookedalready.Theloyaltiesofthepeoplewhoareloanedtotheprojectarecomplicatedbythefactthatthefunctionalmanageroftencontrolspayandpromotionissues.Effectiveteammembershavethefollowingcharacteristics:i) High-qualitytechnicalskills–Thisisthemostcommonlysoughtaftercharacteristic.Theteammembershouldbyexpertenoughintheirfieldtohandlemostofthetechnicalproblemsencounteredbytheproject.ii) Politicalsensitivity–Teammembersneedsomesensitivitytothepoliticsoftheorganization.Atleasttheyshouldknowenoughtodonoharm;thatis,keepquietwhenappropriate.iii) Strongproblemorientation–Teammemberswhoareproblemorientedratherthandisciplineorientedcontributemoretothesuccessoftheproject.Problemorientedpeoplearemorewillingandabletolookbeyondtheirowndisciplineforsolutions.iv) Stronggoalorientation–Teammembersneedtobemotivatedtogetdone,whateverittakes.v) Highself-esteem–Theprojectenvironmentisadifficultoneforallinvolved.Teammembersneedtobewillingtocommunicatefailuresaswellassuccesses.Theyneedtobeabletosettheiregoasideforthegoodoftheteam.c) DealingwithObstacles–Sinceallprojectsareunique,thePMwillalwaysbeconfrontedwithuniqueproblemstosolve.Atthebeginning,theproblemswilloftenrelatetoresourceissues.Attheend,theywilltendtobescheduleandtechnicalissues.d) MakingProjectGoalTrade-offs–ThePMmustmaketrade-offsbetweencost,scheduleandperformance.Duringtheprojectformationphasetheyareusuallytreatedasequals.Whentheprojectreachesthebuild-upphase,scheduletakesthedominantposition.Attheend,performancetakescenterstagefollowedbyscheduleandthencost.e) FailureandtheRiskandFearofFailure–Theorganization’sperceptionsaboutprojectsuccessandfailurehaveconsiderableinfluenceoverthePM.Theseperceptionsaredifferentfordifferenttypesofprojects.Relativelyroutineprojects(e.g.buildingconstruction)arecategorizedasType1.Theyareperceivedtofailiftheydon’thandleunexpectedcrises,eventhoughtheytypicallyexceedcostandschedulegoals.ProjectswithmoreuncertaintyarecategorizedasType2.Theyareperceivedtofailbecauseoftechnicaldifficulties,eventhoughtherealreasonisfailuretoadequatelydefinetherequirements.f) BreadthofCommunication–ThePMmustbetheproject’schiefcommunicator.Thisrequiresconstantsellingandresellingoftheproject.FundamentalissuesthatthePMmustdealwithare:i) Knowingwhytheprojectexists.Thisknowledgehelpsclarifythetradeoffeffortthatwillinevitablytakeplace.ii) Thelikelihoodthatinthepast,thePMhasmanagedaprojectthathasfailed.iii) Gainingandmaintainingtopmanagementsupportfortheproject.Whentheprojecthitsdifficulties,whichitwill,topmanagementsupportwillallowtheteamtokeeppluggingaway.Ifthesupportisnotthere,otherprioritieswillspringup,causingtheprojecttodiebyattrition.iv) Buildingandmaintainingasolidinformationnetwork.Thisincludesbothwithinandoutsidetheprojectteam.g) Negotiation–ThePMmustbeanexcellentnegotiatortonavigatethroughthemanyproblemsandconflictsthatariseduringthecourseoftheproject.4) SelectingtheProjectManager–Theprojectmanagerisoftenselectedforthewrongreasons,chiefamongthembeingavailability.InsteadtherearesomeimportantcharacteristicsthatPMsshouldhave:a) Credibility–ThePMshouldhavetwokindsofcredibility:i) Technicalcredibility,whichrequiresatleastenoughknowledgetobeabletotalkaboutthetechnicalissueswiththeteamanddescribethemtoseniormanagementandthecustomer.ii) Administrativecredibility,whichincludestheabilitytofacilitatetheactivitiesoftheteam,managetheplanandcommunicatewiththestakeholders.b) Sensitivity–SuccessfulPMsdonotavoidconflict,buttheymustbeabletohandleitwell.Beforeconflictscanbehandledtheymustbedetected,theearlierthebetter.Inaddition,thePMmustbeabletodetecttechnicalissuesthattheteammaybetryingtoglossover.c) LeadershipandManagementStyle–Leadershipishardtodefine,butthePMmusthaveittobesuccessful.ThePM’sleadershipmustbeinvestedwithastrongsetofethicstoguidehisorherdecisionsthroughthejungleofconflictsandpersonalities.d) AbilitytoHandleStress–Stressandprojectmanagementareunfortunatelysynonymous.TheorganizationcanreducethePM’sstressbyprovidingaconsistentfoundationofprojectmanagementprocessestoguidehisorherefforts.5) ProblemsofCulturalDifferences–Cultureencompassesthetechnology,institutions,languageandartsofagroupofpeople.Manyprojectsmustdealwithmultipleculturestobesuccessful.Thesecanbetheculturesindifferentpartsofthesamecompany,differentpartsofthecountryordifferentpartsoftheworld.a) CultureandtheProject–Culturaldifferencescanaffectseveralaspectsofprojectsincluding:? Perceptionsoftime–Whatdoeson-timemean?? Philosophyforstaffingprojects–Whatcharacteristicsareimportantforchoosingteammembers?? Istechnologyorpeoplemoreimportant?b)MicroculturesandtheProject–Oftencalledcorporateculture,thisisspecifictoafirmorindustryratherthanacountry.6) ImpactofInstitutionalEnvironments–Inthiscontexttheenvironmentisthesumoftheinputstotheprojectandthereceiveroftheoutputsfromtheproject.a) SocioeconomicEnvironment–Dependingonthecountriesinvolved,thePMwillhavetodealwithquitedifferentviewsoftheappropriaterolesformembersoftheteam.Thiscouldinvolveissuesofgender,raceandreligionthatUScultureattemptstobe“blind”to.b) LegalEnvironment–Differentcultureshavedifferentviewpointsabouttheappropriateuseofthelegalsystem.IntheUSwearefamousfortakingeverythingtocourt,andthisperceptiondrivesactionsandreactionswithintheproject.Otherculturesmayhavedifferentviewsastopropertyrightsandhowtobestsolvedisputes.Onewell-publicizeddifferenceistheattitudetowardsintellectualproperty.c) TheBusinessCycleasanEnvironment–Differentcountrieswilloftenbeatdifferentplacesonthebusinesscycle(e.g.recession,inflation,orgrowth).Thiscancausedifferentperceptionsaboutthelevelofprosperity,whichinturninfluencesattitudestowardsprojects.d) TechnologicalEnvironment–Differentculturesusedifferentlevelsoftechnologybasedonlocalculturalandeconomicfactors.7) MulticulturalCommunicationsandManagerialBehavior–Languageisobviouslyanimportantelementofcommunication.Language,however,isnotjustthespokenword,butincludesgestures,bodyposition,picturesandsymbols.a) StructureandStyleofCommunication-ThePMmustbesensitivetothemanyassumptionsthatareburiedinmanagementprocessesandcommunications.Theseassumptionsmaynotbeknownorunderstoodbypeoplefromothercultures,hamperingcommunicationsinweirdandwonderfulways.b) ManagerialandPersonalBehavior–ThePMmustalsobesensitivetohowhisorherpersonalbehaviorsandmannerismsmaybeinterpreteddifferentlybypeoplefromothercultures.Thiscaninvolveissuesrangingfromhowclosetostandduringconversationtowhetherasubordinatecanquestionasuperior.Chapter4Overview–Thischapterdescribesinmoredetailthenatureoftheconflictsfacedbyprojectmangersandsometechniquesfordealingwiththem.Thechapterisnot,however,aprimeronnegotiation.It’simportantforthePMtokeepinmindthatconflictisanaturalandnecessarypartofprojects,sotheymu