中山大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院 常晨光教授習(xí)語(yǔ)

1、1,English Idioms,Chang Chenguang ,2,In this talk,English Idioms Features of English Idioms Classification of Idioms Idioms in use,3,Features of English Idioms,Defining idioms has never been easy. Due to different theoretical standpoints and classification criteria, researchers have not been able to

2、reach an agreement on what constitutes an idiom. Definitions in linguistics: a complex lexical item which is longer than a word form but shorter than a sentence and which has a meaning that cannot be derived from the knowledge of its component parts. Meaning is thus the decisive, if not the only, cr

3、iterion for idioms. A combination of two or more words which are usually structurally fixed and semantically opaque, and function as a single unit of meaning. It is an established form, one that has been accepted by traditional usage.,4,Features of English Idioms,Despite the differences, the three f

4、actors which have been most frequently mentioned as features of idioms are: compositeness institutionalization non-compositionality.,5,Features of English Idioms,By compositeness is meant that an idiom is commonly accepted as a type of multiword expression. a feather in sbs cap (an honor, success, o

5、f which one can be proud) draw a blank (fail to discover or find out about sth after searching hard and asking many questions),6,Features of English Idioms,Apart from compositeness, another necessary condition for a string to be classified as an idiom is institutionalization, the process by which a

6、string or formulation becomes recognized as a lexical item of the language. break a leg put someones nose out of joint “Thats a nice shade of blue, isnt it?” An example of a new idiom which is the result of “attendant circumstances” cited by Hockett.,7,Features of English Idioms,Finally, an idiom is

7、 characterized as a string of words whose semantic interpretation cannot be derived compositionally from its constituents (semantically opaque) Katz structural devices Conversational gambits Stylistic formulae stereotypes,14,Fixed Expressions,Carter (1998: 67): fixed expressions Idioms Irreversible

8、binomials/compound idioms: spick and span, red tape Full idioms: run up (a bill), tear off (rush away), smell a rat, rain cats and dogs, be in the doghouse Semi-idioms: beefy-looking, dead drunk, a fat salary Proverbs: A watched pot never boils. Stock phrases: When all is said and done; a recipe for

9、 disaster; unaccustomed as I am to ; a vicious circle Catchphrases: Thats another fine mess you got me into; what do you think of it so far?; Are you sitting comfortably? Then Ill begin,15,Fixed Expressions,Carter (1998: 67): fixed expressions Allusions/quotations Youve never had it so good; We are

10、not amused; That ladys not for turning. Idiomatic similes as sober as a judge; as old as the hills; as daft as a brush (extremely silly),16,Fixed Expressions,Carter (1998: 67): fixed expressions Discoursal expressions Social formulae/cliches: How do you do? Long time, no see; Bottoms up Connectives;

11、 structural devices Mark my words; Once upon a time; Finally, to conclude Conversational gambits Well now take questions from the floor; Guess what!; I wondered if I could have a word.,17,Fixed Expressions,Carter (1998: 67): fixed expressions Discoursal expressions Stylistic formulae Further to my l

12、etter of 11th inst.; My lords, ladies and gentlemen Stereotypes Were just good friends; I thought youd never ask; Its not what you think!,18,Binomials,Binomials consist of two word forms. These belong to the same word class and are linked by a grammatical item, frequently and. Their constituents can

13、 be independently meaningful as in bed and breakfast or hire and fire or they can be idiomatic bag and baggage, by and by, head over heels Binomials often preserve words which are rare or only survive in the binomial expression hale in hale and hearty; kith in kith and kin The fixed nature of many b

14、inomials is heightened by assonance or alliteration. Rhyme is also not uncommon, e.g. hire and fire, make or break, town and gown and wine and dine.,19,Binomials,The collocative potential of binomials varies as with other lexical combinations. bed and breakfast, high and mighty and odds and ends ent

15、er into free combinations high and dry forms a collocation with leave hook, line and sinker with believe (something) or the synonymous verbs accept, fall for, swallow and take (something),20,Trinomials,There are also three member combinations (trinomials, e.g. left, right and centre or hook, line an

16、d sinker), but these are much less numerous. The basic structure can be expanded, e.g. from rags to riches, by fair means or foul and every Tom, Dick and Harry. Syntactically, the two constituents belong to the same word class and can have syntactic functions which neither constituent could have on

17、their own, e.g. the three nouns hook, line and sinker function as an adverbial (he accepted the story hook, line and sinker), while the two adverbs so-and-so form a noun phrase (e.g. what do you think of that old so-and-so?).,21,Proverbs,Proverbs as a class are not completely frozen, as is shown by

18、the possibility of various additions and insertions. There are for example expressions that mark proverbs as such, e.g. (as) they say, it is said or as the proverb goes, which can precede, interrupt or follow the respective proverb;,22,Proverbs,Proverbs often show irregular syntax (Like father, like

19、 son a son will resemble his father, Handsome is as handsome does what counts is not appearance etc. but ones actions). Proverbs are concerned with general rather than specific meanings, which is why the past tense is not normally found with them. e.g. He who pays the piper calls the tune.,23,Prover

20、bs,Proverbs are said to have a didactic tendency: they suggest a course of action. This is sometimes expressed directly (When in Rome do as the Romans do, People in glass houses should not throw stones), but more often indirectly (The early bird catches the worm). Proverbs contain the practical wisd

21、om of a culture as it has accumulated through the centuries. They are thus authoritative statements which it is difficult to contradict.,24,Pragmatic idioms,Discoursal expressions: pragmatic idioms, or routines or social formulas or gambits. Among the many situations in which stereotypical, or routi

22、nized, language is used are the beginnings (greetings, introductions) and endings (leave takings) of social encounters and letters, eating and drinking, and all sorts of business transactions.,25,Pragmatic idioms,Situations differ in the degree to which the language used in them is predetermined. In

23、 many cases there is no choice, as in formal letters where one has to use Dear and Yours even when one has anything but friendly feelings for the addressee. In other situations, various options are available. When one first meets people and introductions are made one can use How do you do?, Hello, H

24、i, Nice/Pleased to meet you and I have been looking forward to meeting you (for some time).,26,Pragmatic idioms,In contrast to the other types of fixed expression, pragmatic idioms often need the context of situation in order to be understood correctly. Black or white? in a different context (e.g. W

25、as the waiter black or white?) has a completely different meaning. The difficult semantics results in many cases from omission: Say when is presumably shortened from Say when I am to stop pouring or Say when you have enough.,27,Sources of English Idioms,Everyday life keep ones shirt/hair on, give sb

26、 the cold shoulder, make ends meet Agricultural life lead sb up the garden path, put ones hand to the plough Nautical and military life in the same boat, be in deep waters, cross swords with sb, stick to ones guns, rank and file Business come under the hammer, talk shop, turn an honest penny,28,Sour

27、ces of English Idioms,Food and cooking keep the pot boiling, be in the soup, butter both sides of ones bread Sports and games keep the ball rolling, reach first base, follow suit, turn up trumps, play into sbs hand The Bible and other literary works a thorn in the flesh, turn the other cheek, a drop

28、 in the bucket, wolf in sheeps clothing, give the devil his due, wear ones heart on ones sleeves, sour grapes, the lions share, Achilles heel,29,Classification of English Idioms,Classification criteria Semantic criterion Sources of idioms Syntactic function verbal, nominal, adjectival, etc,30,Classi

29、fication of English Idioms,Structural criteria Phrase idioms (the patter of tiny feet, easy on the eye, in one piece) Clause idioms (catch sb red-handed, deal sb a blow) Sentence idioms (the proof of the pudding is in the eating, give sb an inch and hell take a mile) ,31,Classification of English Id

30、ioms,Idioms of different structural types: clause idioms e.g. the coast is clear; let your hair down; theres life in the old dog yet; goodness knows; enough is enough, lets face it; business is business; you can say that again; if you cant stand the heat, get out of the kitchen; thats more like it;

31、tomorrow is another day semi-clause idioms (verbal phrase) e.g. kick the bucket; bring the house down; hit the sack; jump the gun; let the cat out of the bag; skate on thin ice; flex ones muscles; turn the tables (on somebody),32,Classification of English Idioms,Idioms of different structural types:

32、 idiomatic phrasal verbs, e.g. take off; get away with; let down; look out; put up with; set up; walk away with; look up to; weigh in on; bring up; scrape by; keep out of prepositional expressions, e.g. off the beaten track; at one fell swoop; out of the blue; off the record; from the cradle to the

33、grave; over my dead body; against all the odds binomials and trinomials, e.g. give or take, safe and sound, part and parcel; hustle and bustle; wine and dine; ready, willing and able; hook, line and sinker; lock, stock and barrel,33,Classification of English Idioms,Idioms of different structural typ

34、es: possessive phrases, e.g. a kings ransom; the cats whiskers; a dogs dinner; a bakers dozen; the emperors new clothes; a teachers pet; Hobsons choice; kids stuff,34,Classification of English Idioms,Proverbs Cowards die many times before their deaths. Dont count your chickens before theyre hatched.

35、 Easy come, easy go. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. Nothing ventured, nothing gained. One swallow does not make a summer. The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak. Where theres a will theres a way.,35,Classification of English Idioms,Sentence idioms Conversational expressions You can s

36、ay that again You dont say Call it a day Youre telling me,36,Idioms in use,Variation and manipulation Fixedness is one of the key properties of English idioms. Corpus studies show that around 40% of database fixed expressions and idioms in English have lexical variations or strongly institutionalize

37、d transformations, and around 14% have two or more variations on their canonical forms.,37,Idioms in use,Idioms are structurally fixed. As a rule one is not supposed to change any element in an idiomatic expressions. But it is not unusual for writers to give a new twist to an old saying by making sl

38、ight changes for rhetorical effect. Replacement of one element by another without affecting the meaning of the whole Insertion of one or more words into an idiomatic expression without changing its basic meaning Deletion of one or more words from the idiomatic expression,38,Idioms in use,Variation a

39、nd manipulation Carter (1998: 65) to drop a brick (make a mistake) Hes dropped a really enormous brick this time. A brick has been dropped. break ones heart heart-breaking, heart-broken, heart-breaker,39,Idioms in use,Lexical variations Lexical variations mainly involve the verb, noun, adjective, pa

40、rticle, and sometimes conjunction. Verb variation is probably the commonest type. In many cases, the meaning of a whole idiom is barely affected by variation, whereas in others there may be important semantic distinctions. get/set/start the ball rolling grin/smile like a Cheshire cat jump/climb on t

41、he bandwagon let/blow off steam set/put the cat among the pigeons stick/stand out like a sore thumb the dust settles/clears,40,Idioms in use,Lexical variations Variation of nouns is also very common, and may often involve synonymous alternating nouns. Sometimes, it may also take the form of singular

42、 or plural forms, male/female noun equivalents, hyponyms or meronyms, etc. There are also cases where the varying nouns are not related at all. castles in the air/Spain a cog in the machine/wheel somebodys bit of skirt/fluff/crumpet from head to foot/toe leave somebody holding the baby/bag mothers/m

43、ummys/mamas boy not give a hoot/two hoots,41,Lexical variations,Adjective and modifier variation of English idioms often involves broadly synonymous adjectives, as in as easy/simple as falling off a log, a rotten/bad apple (in the barrel), new/fresh blood, a big fish in a little/small pond, the best

44、/greatest thing since sliced bread, everything in the garden is rosy/lovely, be on safe/firm ground, a tough/hard/difficult nut (to crack), etc.,42,Idiom variation,There are also many cases of idiom variation where one version is simply a fuller or shorter version of the other. The fuller version of

45、ten involves an extra adjective, adverb, prepositional phrase, or some other element, adding emphasis or precision, as in like a (hot) knife through butter, like (greased) lightning, pass the hat (around), turn (over) in ones grave, twist the knife (in the wound), a tough nut (to crack), a hair of t

46、he dog (that bit you), all (fingers and) thumbs, etc.,43,Idiom variation,Also worth mentioning are the differences between British and American idioms, which often involve variations of nouns and verbs that may reflect lexical or cultural distinctions, as in red as a beetroot/beet, throw a spanner/w

47、rench in the works, turn on sixpence/dime, fall through the net/cracks, keep ones hair/shirt on, rub shoulders/elbows with, if the cap/shoe fits, etc.,44,Structural variations,Structural variations are more varied. Passivization Embedding nonfinite uses Nominalization transformation to adjectives,45

48、,Structural variations,Passivization a. Theres every reason for going along and hauling her over the coals for wasting police time. a1. I heard later that Uncle Jim had been hauled over the coals for not letting anyone know where we were. b.They stopped dead in their tracks and started shouting at t

49、he guard. b1. I was stopped in my tracks by a roar from the stadium.,46,Structural variations,Passivization It is important to recognize jealousy as soon as possible and to nip it in the bud before it gets out of hand. The tragedy is, this sort of anti-social behaviour can be nipped in the bud provi

50、ded that appropriate action is taken at an early stage. Paul, you cant tar every woman with the same brush just because things didnt go well for you and Claire. As a result of the problems, many local pubs have banned drinkers between the ages of 18-24. Some youngsters are angry at being tarred with

51、 the same brush.,47,Structural variations,Embedding There is a last option, known in the trade as “self assurance”. Put simply it means that you do everything you can to protect your property, and if something gets lost, damaged or stolen, you bite the bullet and cover the cost yourself. It is not,

52、however, easy to contemplate putting whole federations out of action. That is a bullet on which the Arthur Golds of this world have steadfastly failed to bite.,48,Structural variations,Embedding Actions speak louder than words, so we have to make sure that we give our customers what we have promised

53、 them. Yes, whats he doing about his words then? Any actions that are speaking louder than his words?,49,Structural variations,Non-finite use Many verbal idioms can also be used in non-finite clauses without destroying the meaning. For example: It failed because we did not understand the plumbing bu

54、siness, and it taught us a lesson about sticking to our knitting! Public mud-slinging reflects no credit on sport. It brings football into disrepute, and washing dirty linen in public does nothing for the game.,50,Structural variations,Nominalization of idioms Nominalization of idioms is more common

55、ly lexical or morphological than purely syntactical, as can be seen in the examples below. There is, quite evidently, some resentment among health professionals at having to play second fiddle in the new structure. I think Caryl would have to admit that were no longer second fiddle to our American c

56、ousins.,51,Structural variations,Transformation to adjectives Less well known, but in my opinion more interesting, is the fact that unofficial and unspoken nonaggression pacts, a “l(fā)ive-and-let-live” system, flourished all up and down the front lines for at least two years starting in 1914. I could h

57、ardly ask Helen to marry me and share my hand-to-mouth existence.,52,Manipulation of idioms,Manipulation, or exploitation of idioms, on the other hand, involves more marked nonce uses, which may change an idioms form and meaning, often for stylistic reasons. First, manipulation often involves alteri

58、ng or replacing one or more of the constituent words of an idiomatic expression for stylistic effect, for example, to make the idiom more appropriate in its context or simply to pun and create humour.,53,Manipulation of idioms,Carlson: Up first, who is that masked man? its Al Gore, grinning at a spe

59、ech in New York last night. Back from self-imposed exile on the high-end lecture circuit, Gore has rejoined the political fray, planning a comeback tour for 2004. Judging by appearances, the candidate famous for the creativity of his pandering is staging a not-so-subtle appeal to the Taliban community, a potentially key swing vote. But Gore may have misjudged. Beards, it turns out, are last years extremist fashion accessory. Even John Walker Lindh has a shave these days. Nice try though, creative. Press: Tucker, realize that beards are in the eyes of the beholder. But you know, I thin