現(xiàn)代語言學前五章課后習題答案

1、Chapter 1 Introduction1. Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.請解釋以下語言學的定義：語言學是對語言的科學研究。Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic inv

2、estigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.語言學研究的不是

3、任何特定的語言，而是一般的語言。語言研究是科學的，因為它是建立在 對真實語言數(shù)據(jù)的系統(tǒng)研究的基礎上的。只有在語言學家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出嚴 肅的語言學結論：觀察語言的實際使用方式，提出一些假設，并用語言事實檢驗這些假設的正 確性。1. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 語言學的主要分支是什么？他們每個人都研究什么？ Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified 語音學一一語音是如何產生和分類的Phonolog

4、y-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning音系學一一聲音如何形成系統(tǒng)和功能來傳達意義Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words形態(tài)學一一詞素如何組合成單詞Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences句法學-詞素和單詞如何組合成句子Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)語義學一一意義的研究(抽象)Pragmatics-The study

5、 of meaning in context of use語用學一一在使用語境中對意義的研究Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society社會語言學一一研究與社會有關的語言Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind心理語言學：研究與大腦活動有關的語言Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories

6、 to language teaching and learning應用語言學一一語言學原理和理論在語言教學中的應用1. What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?現(xiàn)代語言學與傳統(tǒng)語法有何不同？Word資料.Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.現(xiàn)代語言學是描述性的，它的研究是基于真實的，主要是口語數(shù)據(jù)。Traditi

7、onal grammar is prescxxxxriptive;it is baxxxxsed on high “ written language.傳統(tǒng)語法是指令性的，它是以高級”書面語言為基礎的。1. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?Why?現(xiàn)代語言學主要是共時的還是歷時的？為什么？Modern linguistics is mainly synchronicfocusing on the present-day language.Unless the various states of a language a

8、re successfully studiedit will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.現(xiàn)代語言學主要是共時的，側重于當代語言。除非語言的各種狀態(tài)已成功地研究，否則就不 可能從歷時的角度來描述語言。1. Which enjoys priority in modern linguisticsspeech or writing?Why?在現(xiàn)代語言學中，口頭語和書面語哪個優(yōu)先畏什么？Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguist

9、ic study for the following reasons: 在現(xiàn)代語言學研究中，言語優(yōu)先于寫作，原因如下 ：1. Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.就進化而言，語言先于文字。2. A larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.更多的交流是通過口頭而不是書面進行的。1. Speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.言語是幼兒習得母語的形式。

10、1. How is Saussures distinction between language and parole similar to Chomskysdistinction between competence and performance?索緒爾對語言和言語的區(qū)分與喬姆斯基對能力和表現(xiàn)的區(qū)分有何相似之處？Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.Their purpose is to single

11、 out the language system for serious study索緒爾和喬姆斯基都對抽象語言系統(tǒng)和語言的實際使用進行了區(qū)分。他們的目的是把語言系 統(tǒng)挑出來進行認真的研究。1. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a goodcomprehensive definition of language?關于語言特征，你認為好的、全面的語言定義應該包括哪些？Word資料.Language is a rule-governed system.受規(guī)貝U支配的系統(tǒng)Language is b

12、asically vocal. 基本上是發(fā)聲的Language is arbitrary. 任意的。Language is used for human communication.用于人際交往1. What features of human language have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?C霍克特列出了人類語言的哪些甄別性特征來證明它與任何動物的交流系統(tǒng)在本質上是不同 的？Arbitrariness-

13、no logical connection between meanings and soundsto have an unlimited source of exxxxxpressionsa sign of sophistication only humans are capable of 任意性（武斷性）一一意思和聲音之間沒有邏輯聯(lián)系，有無限的表達來源，這是只有人類才能做到的復雜的標志Creativity-it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its usersThisis why t

14、hey can produce and undertand an infinitely large number of sentences.Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send創(chuàng)造性一一它使得用戶可以構造和解釋新的信號，這就是為什么他們可以產生和理解無限多 的句子.動物能夠發(fā)出的信息非常有限Duality- （meaningless sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as mor

15、phemes and wordsthen the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences ） a feature totally lacking in any animal communication雙重性一一（沒有意義的聲音可以分組和重新組合成大量的意義單位如語素和詞然后在更高級 別的單位可以安排和重新安排到無限的句子）動物之間完全沒有交流的特征 Displacement-language can be used to refer to cont

16、exts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.No animal can talk“ about things removed from the immediate situation移位性一一語言可以用來指從說話人的直接情景中移出的上下文。任何動物都不能談論”脫離當前環(huán)境的事物Cultural trasmission-Details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send

17、 out certain signals as a means of limited communication 文化傳遞一一人類語言系統(tǒng)的細節(jié)是教和學的，而動物生來就有能力發(fā)出某種信號，作為一 種有限的交流方式Chapter 2 PhonologyWord資料.1. What are the two major media of communication?of the twowhich one is primary and why?兩種主要的傳播媒介是什么？兩者中，哪一個是主要的，為什么 ？Speech and writing are the two major media used by

18、 natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of languagespeech is considered primary over writing.The reasons are:Speech is prior to writing in language evolution The writing system of any language is always invented “ by its users to record speech when the need arises.Speech pl

19、ays a greater role in daily communicationand speech is the way in which people acquire their native language. 言語和寫作是自然語言作為交流工具的兩種主要媒介。在語言的兩種媒介中，言語被認為是最主要的。的原因是：在語言進化過程中，言語先于文字，任何一種語言的書寫系統(tǒng)都是使用者在需要時發(fā)明”出來記錄言語的。言語在日常交際中起著越來越重要的作用，言語是人們習得母語的方式。1. What are the three branches of phonetics?How do they contr

20、ibute to the study of speech sounds?語音學的三個分支是什么？它們對語音的研究有何貢獻？Articulatory auditory and acoustic phonetics.Articulatory phonetics it studies the speech sounds from the speakers point of view. It studieshow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics , it studies the s

21、peech sounds from the hearer s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.Acoustic phonetics , it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.發(fā)音語音學它所研

22、究的語音說話人的觀點。它研究說話者如何使用他的語言器官來發(fā)音。 聽覺語音學它所研究的語音聽者的觀點。它研究的是聽者如何感知聲音。聲學語音學它通過觀察研究了語音聲波。它研究語音通過空氣從一個人傳到另一個人的物理 方式。1. Where are the articulatory apparatus of a human being contained?人的發(fā)音器官在哪里？In the three cavities: pharyngealoralnasal.在三個月空：咽、 口、鼻。1. What is voicing and how is it caused?Voicing is an artic

23、ulatory dimension of speech sound production.It distinguishes meaning in many languages such as English;therefore it is a phonological feature.It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.Word資料.聲音是語音產生的一個發(fā)音維度。它在許多語言(如英語)中區(qū)分意義，因此它是一種語音特征。它是由聲帶的振動引起的。What is the function of the nasal cavity?How d

24、oes it perform this function?鼻腔的功能是什么？它是如何執(zhí)行這個功能的？To nasalize the sounds that are produced.It does this by closing the air passage connecting the oral and nasal cavities so that the air stream can only go through the nasal cavity.使產生的聲音鼻音化。它通過關閉連接口腔和鼻腔的空氣通道來實現(xiàn)這一點，這樣氣流只能通過鼻腔。Describe the various part

25、s in the oral cavity which are involved in the production of speech sounds.The main parts in the oral cavity are lips teeth teeth ridgehard palatesoft palate(velum)uvulathe back and the blade of the tonguetip of tongue.Explain with examples how broad transcxxxxription and narrow transcxxxxription di

26、ffer.舉例說明寬式音標和嚴式音標有何不同。Broad transcxxxxription-one letter symbol for one sound寬式首標-一個字母符號代表一個聲首Narrow transcxxxxription-diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.嚴式音標-在寬式音標上加變音符號來顯示聲音的細微差別How are the English consonants classified? 英語輔音是如何分類的 ？ Two wa

27、ys to classify consonants: by manner of articulation and by place of articulation. 輔音的兩種分類方法：發(fā)音方式和發(fā)音位置。What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?英語元音的分類標準是什么Position of the tonguei.e.the part of the tongue that is held highest.Openness of the mouthLength of the sound.Shape of the lipsLax

28、ity of the glottis.(1)舌頭的位置，即舌頭的最高點Word資料.(2)嘴巴張開度(3)聲音的長度。(4)嘴唇的形狀聲門松弛度。1. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descxxxxriptions:給出下列每一種聲音描述的語音符號1. Voiced palata affricate d ?濁音腭塞1. Voiceless labiodental fricative f清音唇齒音摩擦1. Voiced alveolar stop d濁音齒槽音爆破音1. Frontcloseshort i前，閉，

29、短1. Backsemi-openlong o:后，半開，長Voicelessbilabial stop p清音，雙唇音，爆破音Give the phonetic feature of each of the following sounds:d voiced alveolar stop 濁音齒槽音爆破音l Alveolar liquids lateral齒槽音流音邊音t? voiceless palatal affricates清音上顆音破擦音w glides bilabial滑音雙唇音u back close short 后 閉短? front open 前開1. How do phone

30、tics and phonology differ in their focus of study?語音學和音韻學的研究重點有何不同？Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between say l and ?pand ph a phonetician or a phonologist?why?你認為誰會更感興趣來區(qū)別l and ?p and ph,語言學者或音韻學者，為什么Phonetics: descxxxxription of all speech sounds and their fine differen

31、ces.Word資料.Phonology: descxxxxription of sound system of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences because such differences will not cause differences in meaning.語音學:對所有語音及其細微差別的描述。音韻學:描述特定語言的聲音系統(tǒng)，以及聲音如何區(qū)分意義。語音學家對這些

32、差異更感興趣，因為這些差異不會導致意義上的差異。What is a phone? How is it different from a phoeme?How are allophones related to a phoneme?語音是什么？它和音素有什么不同？變聲詞與音素有什么關系？Phonea speech sound a phonetic unit語音發(fā)音，語音單位Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound featuresa phonological unit.音素一一一組抽象的聲音特征，一個音位單位。Allophones-actual realiza

33、tions of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.音位變體音素在不同語音環(huán)境中的實際實現(xiàn)。What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set？Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language？什么是最小對，什么是最小集畏什么在語言中識另I最小集很重要？Minimal pair Two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element th

34、at occurs in the same position.Minimal set A group of sound combinations with the above feature.By identifying the minimal pairs or the minimal set of a languagea phonologist can identify its phonemes.最小對一兩個聲音組合，除了在相同位置出現(xiàn)的一個聲音元素外，其他各方面都相同。最小集一一一組具有上述特征的聲音組合。通過識別一種語言的最小對或最小集，音素學家可以識別它的音素。Explain with

35、 examples the sequential rulethe assimilation ruleand the deletion rule.舉例說明序列規(guī)則、同化規(guī)則和省略規(guī)則。Sequential rule rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language For exampleif a word begins with a l or a rthen the next sound must be a vowel. Another exampleif three consonants should clust

36、er together at the beginning of a wordthe combination should obey the following three rules:the first phoneme must be sthe second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/Word資料.the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/words like springspri ? strict strikt splendid splendid squareskwe ?在特定語言中控制聲音組合的序列規(guī)則例如

37、，如果一個單詞以l或r開頭，那么下一個音必須是元音。另一個例子，如果三個輔音在一個單詞的開頭聚在一起，組合應該遵循以下三個規(guī)則(1)第一個音素必須是s(2)第二個音素必須是/p/或/t/或/k/第三個音素必須是/l/或/r/或/w/如 springspri ?strictstriktsplendidsquare skwe ?Assimilation rule rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one of its phonetic features.For examplewhie the i:

38、 sound is non-nasalized in such words teapeep and flee it is nasalized in words like beangreenteamand scream.This is because in all these sound combination the i: sound is followed by a nasaln or m.While we are pronouncing the i: soundwe are already getting ready to pronounce the subsequent nasal so

39、und.Another exampleprefix in- is not always pronouced as an alveolar nasal.It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonat that follows iti.e.dis an alveolar stop.But then sound in the word incorrect is actually pronouced as a velar nasali.e. ?.This is because the consonant that follows it is k

40、which is a velar stop.同化規(guī)則通過復制一個音的語音特征來同化與下一個音相似的音。例如，當i:這個音在tea、peep和escape這樣的單詞中沒有鼻音化時，它在 bean、green、 team和scream這樣的單詞中有鼻音化。這是因為在所有這些聲音組合中，i:后面跟著一個鼻音n或m。當我們發(fā)i:音的時候，我們已經(jīng)準備好發(fā)后面的鼻音了。另一個例子，in-前綴并不總是發(fā)音成齒槽鼻音。在 輕率”一詞中是如此，因為它后面的輔音，即 輕率，d為齒槽爆破音。 但是 不正確”這個詞中的n音實際上是發(fā)軟腭鼻音，即?。這是因為它后面的輔音是k,這是一個velar stop軟腭爆破音。D

41、eletion rule rule governing the deletion of a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.For examplethere is no g sound in signdesignparadigmbut in their corresponding forms signaturedesignationparadigmaticthe g is pronounced.i.e.letter g in -gn or-gm is deletedaccord

42、ing to the regular rule if no suffix is added.省略規(guī)則是在一定的語音上下文中對一個音進行省略的規(guī)則，盡管它拼寫正常顯示。例如，在signdesignparadigm 中沒有g音，但在它們相應的變形中， signaturedesignationparadigmatic 中，g 是發(fā)音的。也就是說，在 -gn 或-gm 中，如果不添 加后綴，則按規(guī)則省略字母g的發(fā)音。Word資料.What are suprasegmental features?How do the major suprasegmental features of English fu

43、nction in conveying meaning?什么是超切分特征？ 英語的主要超切分特征在表達意義上有什么作用？Suprasegmental features -phonological features above the sound segment level. The major suprasegmental features in English-word stresssentence stressintonation.Stress:Depending on the context in which stress is consideredthere are two kinds

44、 of stress:word stress and sentence stress.When we say that a certain syllable of a word is stressedwe mean that the syllable is pronounced with greater force than the other or others.English is a language in which stress is free in that it is not fixed on any particular syllable of a wordits positi

45、on varies from word to word.But the location of stress in English distinguishes meaningfor examplea shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the s

46、tress on the second syllabel.Similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements.Sentence stress refers to the relative force which is given to the words in a sentence.Some words are more important that other wordsand the more important word

47、s are pronounced with greater force and made more important.Tones are pitch variationswhich are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language.When pitchstress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolationthey are collective

48、ly known as intonation.English has four basic types of intonation:the falling tonethe rising tonethe fall-rise toneand the rise-fall tone.The falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forwardmatter-of-fact statementthe rising tone often makes a question of what is saidand the fall-rise

49、tine often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said. 超切分特征-單音層面以上的音系特征。英語的主要超切分特征是單詞重音、句子重音、語調。重音:根據(jù)重音所處的語境，重音有兩種：單詞重音和句子重音。當我們說一個單詞的某個音節(jié)重讀時，我們的意思是這個音節(jié)的發(fā)音比另一個或其他音節(jié)更 有力。英語是一種沒有重音的語言，重音不固定在單詞的任何一個音節(jié)上，它的位置因單詞 而異。但是英語中重音的位置可以區(qū)分意義，例如，重音的變化可能會使一個單詞的詞性從Word資料. 名詞變成動詞，盡管它的拼寫沒有變化。名詞的重音在第一個音

50、節(jié)，相應的動詞重音在第二 個音節(jié)。同樣的重音交替也發(fā)生在復合名詞和由相同成分組成的短語之間。句子重音是指一個句子中 單詞所受到的相對力量。有些單詞比其他單詞更重要，而更重要的單詞發(fā)音更有力，變得更 重要。聲調是音調的變化，是由聲帶的不同頻率的振動引起的。英語不是一種聲調語言。當音高、重音和音長與句子而不是單詞本身聯(lián)系在一起時，它們統(tǒng)稱為語調。英語有四種基 本的語調類型 降調、升調、降升調和升降調。降調表明說話是一種直截了當、實事求是的陳述，升調常常對說話內容提出質疑，而升調常 常表明說話內容中隱含著某種信息。Chapter 3 Morphology 形態(tài)學What does morpholog

51、y study? 形態(tài)學研究什么 ？The internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.單詞的內部結構和構成規(guī)則。What is morpheme?Dissect the following words into morphemes: Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language.De-scrip-tion under-develop-ed photo-synthe-tic ana-tomyRadia-tion geo-graph-y phil

52、-harmon-ic de-frost-edRe-fresh-ment de-mobil-iz-ed con-duct-ing sup-press-ion Circum-spect dia-logue de-form-ed com-bina-tionDescribe with examples the various types of morpheme used in English.Words containing only one morpheme are free morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be use

53、d freely all by themselves. Such as helptableroommatequickfrightable-er-endis-bio-less-symthese morphemes cannot be used by themselvesbut must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.They are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and af

54、fixes.A root is often seen as part of a word;it can never stand by itself although it bears cleardefinite meaning;it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example geo- bears the meaning of the earth -ology “ means a brand of learning . tele- meaning distantfar -vision “

55、meaning seeingsight .leter- means words” -al is an affix used to form adjectives.Affix :Word資料.According to functions we have inflectional and derivational affixes.Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or categories such as munberstensedegree and posse

56、ssive case.(e)s indicating plurality of nouns;third person singular present tense of verb.ing indicating progressive aspect(e)d indicating past tense(e) indicating past participleer indicating comparative degree of adjectives and adverbsest indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbss in

57、dicating the possessive case of nounsDerivational affixes are added to an existing form which is called stem to creat a word. The stem can be a bound roota free morphemeor a derived form itself.Root toler- + affix -ate“ tolerateFree morphemequick+ affix -1y “ quicklyFree morpheme care +affix -less“

58、carelessDerivative careless + affix -nesscarelessnessAccording to its position in the new wordaffixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Prefix modify the meaning of the stembut usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Dis-表示不，否定，相反的 ：dislikediscontinue disagreeUn- 表示不， 相反的動

59、作 :uneasy unconscious unfavorable unlockIn-表示不，incorrect inconvenientMis-表示壞，錯誤，否定 misinform mistake misplaceDe-表示除去， 向下： devaluate decentralize deoxidizeUni- 表示單，一 :unify unilateral unicornSuffixes are added to the end of stemsthey modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change it

60、s part of speech.-er :表施動人 teacher writer beginner-ician :表專業(yè)人員 electrician mathematician physician-bility : 可能，能力， posibility solubility capability-hood : 表示時期，狀態(tài) childhood manhood-age:表示地方 orphanageanchorage vicarage-ary :表示-的 elementary secondary-ful :表充滿-的，有-性質 beautifuldelightfulsorrowful-en:使變