英語(yǔ)專業(yè)必備胡壯麟語(yǔ)言學(xué)筆記匯總

1、.wd.wd.wd.Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.2 what is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication1.3 design features of languagearbitrariness: there is no connection between the words; sound and its meaningduality: the property of having two levels of structur

2、escreativity(productivity): users can produce sentences they have never heard before. Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness.displacement: language can be used to refer to the context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers.cultural transmission: language is passed o

3、 through teaching and learning , rather than by instinct.1.4 origin of languageThe bow-wow theory: imitate the sounds of animalThe pooh-pooh theory: instinctive sounds of joy, ager and painThe yo-he-ho theory: rhythmic grunts produced when working1.5 functions of language1.5.1 the main functions of

4、language:Descriptive functions: cognitive or referential or propositional function. Primary function of language. , to convey factual informationExpressive function: emotive or attitudinal function, supplies users feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.Social function: interpersonal function,

5、 serves to establish and maintain social relations between people1.5.2 according to Jakobson:Emotive: addresser 表達(dá)情感Conative: addressee 導(dǎo)致動(dòng)作的發(fā)生Referential: context描述客觀事實(shí)Poetic: message語(yǔ)言本身的美Phatic communication: contact建設(shè)社會(huì)關(guān)系Metalinguistic: code make clear the meaning of language itself1.5.3 accordi

6、ng to Halliday this system contains three macrofunctionsIdeational: to organize the speaker or writers experience of the real or imaginary world. 達(dá)意功能指組織說話者或作者現(xiàn)實(shí)或虛偽世界的體驗(yàn)，即語(yǔ)言指稱實(shí)際或虛偽的人，物，動(dòng)作，事件，狀態(tài)等Interpersonal: to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people.人際功能說明，建設(shè)，或維持人與人之間的社

7、會(huì)關(guān)系，包括稱謂形式，情感，語(yǔ)言功能等。Textual function: to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.組篇功能指組成書面或或口頭的語(yǔ)篇，這些語(yǔ)篇內(nèi)部連貫，并適用于所用的特定場(chǎng)景。1.6 what is linguistics:The scientific study of language1.9 important dist

8、inctions in linguisticsDescriptive：aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use . describe how things arePrescriptive: 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)性aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, to tell people what they should say and what they should not saySynchronic: the descr

9、iption of a language at some point of time Diachronic: the description of a language at a period of time Speech：is prior to writing , and it plays a more important role in terms of informationWriting: should be taught and learned in schoolsLangue: an abstract linguistic system shared by all members

10、of speech communityParole: the realization of langue in actual useCompetence：the ideal userss knowledge of his rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Traditional grammar: is prescriptive and tend to emphasize the importance of written w

11、ordModern grammar: descriptive, regard spoken language as primary, not the written.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics: the study of speech sounds, the production, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sou

12、nds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It studies sound patterns, how sounds are combined together.The study od speech sounds is divided into three main areas,each dealing with one part of the process.1).Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)2

13、).Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)3).Perceptual or auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué)2.3 phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds that we hear and produce during linguistic

14、communication are all phones. Individual sounds as they occur in speech.Phoneme：the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. is a phonological unit; it is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a c

15、ertain phonetic context.Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called allophone 2.4 consonantsConsonants: are speech sounds where obstruction of airstream is blocked somewhere in the mouth or throat

16、 to different degrees, voiced or voiceless.Vowels: are speech sounds which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords, too. no obstruction, voiced2.5 suprasegmental featuresThe phonetic features tha

17、t occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental featuresSyllable: a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.The syllable structureStress: it refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllableat the word level: the location of stress

18、 in english distinguishes meaningAt the sentence level: the relative force given to the components of a sentence.Tone: pitch variation, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wor

19、d in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.補(bǔ)充：1.Sequential rules: the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language2.phonemic contrast: if they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonetic contrast單個(gè)音的關(guān)系，屬于不同的phoneme Complementary distribution:

20、 the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution變體之間是互補(bǔ)的關(guān)系Minimal pair：音串 eg: kill till bill willChapter 3 Lexicon 詞典3.1.3 closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class : is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles and others.

21、Open-class: is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.3.2 the formation of word3.2.1 morpheme and morphologyMorpheme : the minimal units of meaning. A morpheme cannot be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.Morphology: the part of he grammar that is concerned with w

22、ord formation and word structure. The systematic study of morpheme3.2.2 types of morpheme1) free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself Bound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one2)root: the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyzed without destroying its

23、 meaning. 詞根 Affix: a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. 詞綴 Stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. 3)inflectional affix(inflectional morp

24、heme): 屈折詞素 less productive than derivational morpheme , they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme詞位, such as friends, boys; do not change the word class of the word they attach to; are mostly suffixes, which are always word final, 給的單詞添加詞綴或根據(jù)語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)法規(guī)那么以其他方式改變?cè)~形的過程，the process of adding

25、 an affix to a word or changing it in some way according to the rules of the grammar of a language.Derivational affix(Derivational morpheme): 派生詞素 very productive in making new words, such as recite-recitation; change the lexical meaning; both be prefixes and suffixes,such as online, suburban, slave

26、r, teacher.將詞綴參加其他單詞或詞素以構(gòu)成新詞的方法 the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.3.2.3 inflection: indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, aspect, etc Word formation: the process of how words are formed. Can be further divided i

27、nto two sub-typescompound(compositional type): those words that consist of ore than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, paperbagderivation(derivational type): shows a relationship between roots and affixes. Such as unconscious, natio

28、nal; can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged 3.2.4Sememe: the smallest component of meaningMorpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammarPhoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of soundAllomorph: different forms of a morpheme3.3 lexical change3.3.1 lexical change pr

29、operCoinage(invention): many new lexical items are cioned outright to fit some purposes; come directly from technological and economic activities. Such as kodak, ylon, cokeClipped word(abbreviation): some words are the abbreviations of longer words or phrases. Such as exam-examination, fridge-refrid

30、geratorBlending: some words are formed by combining some part of words.Such as smog-smoke fog, brunch-lunch breakfastAcronyms: some words are the initial part of several words. Such as CEOBack-formation: an unusually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by delecting an ima

31、gined affix from a longer form already in the language. Such as gangling-gangle, editor-editAnalogical creation: the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some english verbs.Borrowing: when two culture come to contact, the word may be borrowed from one country to ano

32、ther one. Such as testa, coconut, tea3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change1)morphological change2)syntactical change3.3.3 semantic change1) broadening: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. Holiday2) arrowing: the original meaning of a w

33、ord can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. Meat3) meaning shift: marshal 馬夫-元帥4) class shift: 5) folk etymology: the change of the from of a word od phrase.3.3.4 phonological change: changes in sound leading to changes in form1)loss: refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phon

34、eme in the phonological system2) addition: sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence.Strike-sutoraiki3) metathesis: a process involving a change in the sequence of soundsBird-bridassimilation: 同化3.3.5 orthographic change:Vp-up sunne-sun sate-satChapter 4 From word to textSyntax: the st

35、udy of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences4.1 syntactic relations4.1.1 positional relation: sequential arrangement of words in a language Syntagmatic relation: (F de Saussure)橫組合關(guān)系 Horizonal relation Chain relation4.1.2 relation of substitutabilit

36、y1)the relationship that linguistic units have with others that could be substituted for them in the sentenceSaussure: associative relations(聯(lián)想關(guān)系)Hjemslev: paradigmatic relations(縱聚合關(guān)系)Vertical/choice relations(垂直選擇關(guān)系)4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence: the words of different sets of clauses may permit

37、 , or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 grammatical construction: any syntactic constructExternal syntax of a construction: the property of the construction as a wholeI

38、nternal syntax of a construction: a description of the constructionss make-up4.2.1 immediate constituentsConstituents: a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Immediate constituent analysis: IC analysis, proposed by American

39、structuralist. The goal and consequence of IC analysis is to analyze a linguistic expression into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.4.2.3 endocentric and exocentric constructions endocentric: is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent

40、s. There is definable center or head.These two oldest stone bridgesWill be leavingVery late Exocentric: the opposite of endocentric. Refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, no definable center or headThe boy smiledH

41、e hid behind the doorHe kicked the ballJohn seemed angry4.2.4 coordination and subordinationCoordinate construction: 并列構(gòu)造，more than one headGirls and boys came, ate and leftDown the stairs and out the door beautiful and expensiveJane loves jim and jim loves janeSubordinate construction: one headThe

42、three small children the book left on the shelfWill have been leaving hot beyond enduranceComplement clause: 補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)I do not think you are rightAdjunct or adverbial clause: 狀語(yǔ)從句He cleaned the blackboard before I read the noteRelative clause: 定語(yǔ)從句The man I love must be responsible4.3 syntactic function:

43、shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is usedSubject: 主語(yǔ)Predicate:謂語(yǔ)Object:賓語(yǔ)4.3.4 the relation between classes and functionsA class item can perform several functionsA function can be fulfilled by several classes4.4 category: refers t

44、o classes and functions in its narrow sense. Eg: noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, etc, more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units. The category of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, aspec

45、t, voice, etc;4.4.1 number: mostly a category of noun and pronounDog-dogs I wish-he wishes4.4.2 gender: mostly a category of noun and pronounActor-actress waiter-waitress4.4.3 case: a grammatical category that shows the function of the noun or noun phrase in a sentence.4.4.4 agreement: the requireme

46、nt that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories4.5 phrase：短語(yǔ) Clause: 從句Dependent clause附屬?gòu)木? because I was late, they went without meIndependent clause獨(dú)立子句: I love you and you love meFinite clause: 限定性從句Non-finite clause：非限定

47、性從句 Sentence: 句子Simple sentence: 只有一個(gè)謂語(yǔ)Compound sentence: 復(fù)合句、并列句Complex sentence: 復(fù)雜句4.6 recursiveness遞歸性Coordination并列關(guān)系 and subordination主從關(guān)系Conjoining合并 : refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined to another, and but orEmbedding嵌入: refers to the means by which one clause

48、 is included in a sentence, eg：the man I love must be responsibleHypotactic 主從構(gòu)造，附屬關(guān)系and paratactic并列的4.7 beyond the sentenceText linguistics: 篇章語(yǔ)言學(xué)Discourse analysis: 話語(yǔ)分析4.7.1 sentential connection:Hypotactic relations: 附屬關(guān)系I dont like the party. So I wont take part in itParatactic relations: 并列關(guān)系

49、The door is open.4.7.2 cohesion銜接一種語(yǔ)義上的概念，銜接是“存在于語(yǔ)篇中并使之成為語(yǔ)篇的意義之間的聯(lián)系-Would you like an apple? -yes, I would like a small one.Chapter 5 MeaningSemantics: the study of meaning of linguistic units, words, and sentences in particular.naming theory: words are just labels or names for things, which is prop

50、osed by Platoconceptualism theory: semantic trianglesymbol(word):linguistic elements-referent(object):the object in the world thought(concept)wordsconceptobjectsthis theory relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mindthere is no direct link between a linguistic form and wha

51、 it refers to；rather in the interpretation of meaning that they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.contextualism(J.R forth)we should know a word by the company it keeps; meaning is based on context. the meaning of a word is its use in languagesituational context and linguistic

52、contextbehaviorism theoryLeonard Bloomfield: refers to the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.StimuluslanguageresponseIm thirstyStimulusresponse-stimulusresponse5.1 meaning of “meaning5.1.1 conceptual meaning: basic meaning1) denotation: the entity

53、 which has the abstract properties; the object a word refers to2) connotation: the abstract properties of the entity a word denotes5.1.2 connotative meaning: implied meaning5.1.3 social meaning: what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use5.1.4 affective meaning: what is communic

54、ated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer5.1.5 reflected meaning：what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.Human language is a tool of social intercourse.5.1.6 collocative meaning: what is communicated through association with words which tend

55、to occur in the environment of another wordHe is a pretty man. She is a handsome girl.5.1.7 thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.My sister is at the door. At door is my sister5.2 the referential theory所指理論The theory of mea

56、ning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to , or stands for it Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of linguistic form, the collection of all its features. The abstract properties. Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in a real and physical world. The concrete

57、entities having these properties.5.3 sense relations:5.3.1 synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning1)absolute synonyms: 維生素-維他命 激素-荷爾蒙2)relative synonyms: 3)dialectal synonyms: used in different region4)Stylistic synonyms: differing in style5)Emotive synonyms:differ in the emotion and e

58、valuating meaning.6) collocational synonyms: accuse of charge with7)semantically different synonyms: amaze astound5.3.2 antonymy: relation of semantic oppositionGradable antonyms: old and young middle-agedComplementary antonyms: 互補(bǔ)反義關(guān)系alive and dead male and femaleConverse antonyms: 相反反義關(guān)系 father an

59、d son teacher and student5.3.3 hyponymy: 上下義關(guān)系: the sense relation between a more generalMore inclusive wordSuperordinate:廣義詞 Hyponyms: more specific words.補(bǔ)充：homonymy: 同音異義詞Same in sound: homophones leak/leek piece-peaceSame in spelling:homographs lead/lead tear/tearSame in sound/spelling: complete

60、 homonyms fast scalePolysemy: 一詞多義 table5.4 componential analysis: analyze word meaning Advantages: it better accounts for sense relations between wordsEg man(human, adult , male)It better accounts for sense relations between sentencesX is synonymous with y x is inconsistent with yX entails y x pres