TPO閱讀44文本答案翻譯

TPO-44FromFishtoTerrestrialVertebratesOneofthemostsignificantevolutionaryeventsthatoccurredonEarthwasthetransitionofwater-dwellingfishtoterrestrialtetrapods(four-limbedorganismswithbackbones).Fishprobablyoriginatedintheoceans,andourfirstrecordsofthemareinmarinerocks.However,bytheDevonianPeriod(408millionto362millionyearsago),theyhadradiatedintoalmostallavailableaquatichabitats,includingfreshwatersettings.Oneofthegroupswhosefossilsareespeciallycommoninrocksdepositedinfreshwateristhelobe-finnedfish.ThefreshwaterDevonianlobe-finnedfishrhipidistiancrossopterygianisofparticularinteresttobiologistsstudyingtetrapodevolution.Thesefishlivedinriverchannelsandlakesonlargedeltas.Thedeltarocksinwhichthesefossilsarefoundarecommonlyredduetooxidizedironminerals,indicatingthatthedeltasformedinaclimatethathadalternatewetanddryperiods.Iftherewereperiodsofdrought,anyadaptationsallowingthefishtosurvivethedryconditionswouldhavebeenadvantageous.Intheserhipidistians,severalsuchadaptationsexisted.Itisknownthattheyhadlungsaswellasgillsforbreathing.Crosssectionscutthroughsomeofthefossilsrevealthatthemudfillingtheinteriorofthecarcassdifferedinconsistencyandtexturedependingonitslocationinsidethefish.Thesedifferencessuggestasadlikecavitybelowthefrontendofthegutthatcanonlybeinterpretedasalung.Gillswereundoubtedlythemainsourceofoxygenforthesefish,butthelungsservedasanauxiliarybreathingdeviceforgulpingairwhenthewaterbecameoxygendepleted,suchasduringextendedperiodsofdrought.So：thesefishhadalreadyevolvedoneoftheprimerequisitesforlivingonland:theabilitytouseairasasourceofoxygen.Asecondadaptationofthesefishwasinthestructureofthelobefins.Thefinswerethick,fleshy,andquitesturdy,withamedianaxisofbonedownthecenter.Theycouldhavebeenusedasfeeblelocomotordevicesonland,perhapsgoodenoughtoallowafishtoflopitswayfromonepoolofwaterthatwasalmostdrytoanadjacentpondthathadenoughwaterandoxygenforsurvival.Thesefinseventuallychangedintoshort,stubbylegs.ThebonesofthefinsofaDevonianrhipidistianexactlymatchinnumberandpositionthelimbbonesoftheearliestknowntetrapods,theamphibians.Itshouldbeemphasizedthattheevolutionoflungsandlimbswasinnosenseananticipationoffuturelifeonland.Theseadaptationsdevelopedbecausetheyhelpedfishtosurviveintheirexistingaquaticenvironment.Whatecologicalpressuresmighthavecausedfishestograduallyabandontheirwateryhabitatandbecomeincreasinglyland-dwellingcreatures?ChangesinclimateduringtheDevonianmayhavehadsomethingtodowiththisiffreshwaterareasbecameprogressivelymorerestricted.Anotherimpetusmayhavebeennewsourcesoffood.Theedgesofpondsandstreamssurelyhadscattereddeadfishandotherwater-dwellingcreatures.■Inaddition,plantshademergedintoterrestrialhabitatsinareasnearstreamsandponds,andcrabsandotherarthropodswerealsomembersofthisearliestterrestrialcommunity.■Thus,bytheDevonianthelandhabitatmarginaltofreshwaterwasprobablyarichsourceofproteinthatcouldbeexploitedbyananimalthatcouldeasilyclimboutofwater.■Evidencefromteethsuggeststhattheseearliesttetrapodsdidnotutilizelandplantsasfood;theywerepresumablycarnivorousandhadnotdevelopedtheabilitytofeedonplants.■Howdidthefirsttetrapodsmakethetransitiontoaterrestrialhabitat?Likeearlylandplantssuchasrhyniophytes,theymadeonlyapartialtransition;theywerestillquitetiedtowater.However,manyproblemsthatfacedearlylandplantswerenotapplicabletothefirsttetrapods.Theancestorsoftheseanimalsalreadyhadacirculationsystem,andtheyweremobile,sothattheycouldmovetowatertodrink.Furthermore,theyalreadyhadlungs,whichrhipidistianspresumablyusedforauxiliarybreathing.Theprincipalchangesfortheearliesttetrapodswereintheskeletalsystem—changesinthebonesofthefins,thevertebralcolumn,pelvicgirdle,andpectoralgirdle.P1：OneofthemostsignificantevolutionaryeventsthatoccurredonEarthwasthetransitionofwater-dwellingfishtoterrestrialtetrapods(four-limbedorganismswithbackbones).Fishprobablyoriginatedintheoceans,andourfirstrecordsofthemareinmarinerocks.However,bytheDevonianPeriod(408millionto362millionyearsago),theyhadradiatedintoalmostallavailableaquatichabitats,includingfreshwatersettings.Oneofthegroupswhosefossilsareespeciallycommoninrocksdepositedinfreshwateristhelobe-finnedfish.Paragraph1supportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutfishevolution?Lobe-finnedfishwereamongtheearliesttypesoffishtoappear.Fishbeganlivinginfreshwaterhabitatsonlyafteroriginatingelsewhere.Lobe-finnedfishradiatedintoalmostallavailableaquatichabitats.DuringtheDevonian,lobe-finnedfishweremorecommoninmarinethaninfreshwaterhabitats.P2：ThefreshwaterDevonianlobe-finnedfishrhipidistiancrossopterygianisofparticularinteresttobiologistsstudyingtetrapodevolution.Thesefishlivedinriverchannelsandlakesonlargedeltas.Thedeltarocksinwhichthesefossilsarefoundarecommonlyredduetooxidizedironminerals,indicatingthatthedeltasformedinaclimatethathadalternatewetanddryperiods.Iftherewereperiodsofdrought,anyadaptationsallowingthefishtosurvivethedryconditionswouldhavebeenadvantageous.Intheserhipidistians,severalsuchadaptationsexisted.Itisknownthattheyhadlungsaswellasgillsforbreathing.Crosssectionscutthroughsomeofthefossilsrevealthatthemudfillingtheinteriorofthecarcassdifferedinconsistencyandtexturedependingonitslocationinsidethefish.Thesedifferencessuggestasadlikecavitybelowthefrontendofthegutthatcanonlybeinterpretedasalung.Gillswereundoubtedlythemainsourceofoxygenforthesefish,butthelungsservedasanauxiliarybreathingdeviceforgulpingairwhenthewaterbecameoxygendepleted,suchasduringextendedperiodsofdrought.So：thesefishhadalreadyevolvedoneoftheprimerequisitesforlivingonland:theabilitytouseairasasourceofoxygen.Accordingtoparagraph2,whatdothemineralsinthedeltarockscontainingrhipidistiancrossopterygianfossilsreveal?Thesedeltasformedindryperiodsbutgraduallybecamewetter.Thesedeltascontaindifferenttypesofironmineralsthandothesurroundingareas.Mostrhipidistiancrossopterygianfishdiedwhentheclimatebecamedry.Rhipidistiancrossopterygianfishlivedinareasthatexperiencedalternatedryandwetperiods.Theword"advantageous"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtobeneficialnecessaryremarkablecommonInparagraph2,whydoestheauthorincludetheinformationthatmudinsiderhipidistiancrossopterygianfossilsdifferedinconsistencyandtexturedependingonwherethemudwaslocated?Toprovideevidencethatrhipidistiancrossopterygianlivedinriverchannelsandlakesonlargedeltas.Toidentifyaneffectoftheoxidationofironmineralsontheevolutionofrhipidistiancrossopterygian.Tohelpexplainwhyscientistshaveconcludedthatrhipidistiancrossopterygianprobablyhadlungs.Toexplainwhyscientistsdecidedtocutcrosssectionsthroughsomefossilsofrhipidistiancrossopterygian.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.Becausethelungsofthesefishwereabletoprovideonlyasmallamountofoxygen,thesefishobtainedmostoftheiroxygenthroughtheirgillsduringperiodsofdrought.Duringperiodsofextendeddrought,thesefishusedtheirlungstoincreasetheirintakeofoxygenbeyondthelevelsabsorbedbythegillsinnormaltimes.Althoughthesefishprimarilyusedtheirgillstoobtainoxygen,theyusedtheirlungstoobtainoxygenfromtheairwhentherewasnotenoughinthewater.Duringperiodsofextendeddrought,thegillsbecameanauxiliarybreathingdeviceandthelungsbecamethemainsourceofoxygenforthesefish.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.Becausethelungsofthesefishwereabletoprovideonlyasmallamountofoxygen,thesefishobtainedmostoftheiroxygenthroughtheirgillsduringperiodsofdrought.Duringperiodsofextendeddrought,thesefishusedtheirlungstoincreasetheirintakeofoxygenbeyondthelevelsabsorbedbythegillsinnormaltimes.Althoughthesefishprimarilyusedtheirgillstoobtainoxygen,theyusedtheirlungstoobtainoxygenfromtheairwhentherewasnotenoughinthewater.Duringperiodsofextendeddrought,thegillsbecameanauxiliarybreathingdeviceandthelungsbecamethemainsourceofoxygenforthesefish.P3：Asecondadaptationofthesefishwasinthestructureofthelobefins.Thefinswerethick,fleshy,andquitesturdy,withamedianaxisofbonedownthecenter.Theycouldhavebeenusedasfeeblelocomotordevicesonland,perhapsgoodenoughtoallowafishtoflopitswayfromonepoolofwaterthatwasalmostdrytoanadjacentpondthathadenoughwaterandoxygenforsurvival.Thesefinseventuallychangedintoshort,stubbylegs.ThebonesofthefinsofaDevonianrhipidistianexactlymatchinnumberandpositionthelimbbonesoftheearliestknowntetrapods,theamphibians.Itshouldbeemphasizedthattheevolutionoflungsandlimbswasinnosenseananticipationoffuturelifeonland.Theseadaptationsdevelopedbecausetheyhelpedfishtosurviveintheirexistingaquaticenvironment.Toomanywordsyoudon'tknow?Lookthemupin《新托福TPO閱讀詞匯速查速記》Wechat:geeqi0805Theword"adjacent"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto:nearbyavailabletemporaryfreshYouenjoytheconvenienceofhavingallvocabularyquestionslistedasaseparatepartin《新托福TPO閱讀詞匯速查速記》P4：Whatecologicalpressuresmighthavecausedfishestograduallyabandontheirwateryhabitatandbecomeincreasinglyland-dwellingcreatures?ChangesinclimateduringtheDevonianmayhavehadsomethingtodowiththisiffreshwaterareasbecameprogressivelymorerestricted.Anotherimpetusmayhavebeennewsourcesoffood.Theedgesofpondsandstreamssurelyhadscattereddeadfishandotherwater-dwellingcreatures.■Inaddition,plantshademergedintoterrestrialhabitatsinareasnearstreamsandponds,andcrabsandotherarthropodswerealsomembersofthisearliestterrestrialcommunity.■Thus,bytheDevonianthelandhabitatmarginaltofreshwaterwasprobablyarichsourceofproteinthatcouldbeexploitedbyananimalthatcouldeasilyclimboutofwater.■Evidencefromteethsuggeststhattheseearliesttetrapodsdidnotutilizelandplantsasfood;theywerepresumablycarnivorousandhadnotdevelopedtheabilitytofeedonplants.■Theword“progressively"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto:increasinglynoticeablyoccasionallyrapidlyInparagraph4,whydoestheauthorpointoutthatcrabsandotherarthropodswerealreadylivingonlandwhentheancestorsofthefirsttetrapodsbeganlivingthere?ToaccountforthepresenceofdeadfishalongtheedgesofpondsandstreamsduringtheDevonian.TosupporttheclaimthatclimatechangecausedfreshwaterhabitatstobecomemorerestrictedduringtheDevonian.Toidentifyaconsequenceoftheemergenceofplantsintoterrestrialhabitatsnearpondsandstreams.Toidentifyapossiblereasonforwhycertainfishgraduallybecameterrestrialorganisms.Accordingtoparagraph4，teethoftheearliesttetrapodssuggestthatthesetetrapodscompetedwithotheranimalsforproteinwereprobablycarnivorescouldeasilyclimboutofwaterwereabletoeatplantsP5：Howdidthefirsttetrapodsmakethetransitiontoaterrestrialhabitat?Likeearlylandplantssuchasrhyniophytes,theymadeonlyapartialtransition;theywerestillquitetiedtowater.However,manyproblemsthatfacedearlylandplantswerenotapplicabletothefirsttetrapods.Theancestorsoftheseanimalsalreadyhadacirculationsystem,andtheyweremobile,sothattheycouldmovetowatertodrink.Furthermore,theyalreadyhadlungs,whichrhipidistianspresumablyusedforauxiliarybreathing.Theprincipalchangesfortheearliesttetrapodswereintheskeletalsystem—changesinthebonesofthefins,thevertebralcolumn,pelvicgirdle,andpectoralgirdle.Accordingtoparagraph5,whichofthefollowingwastrueofthefirsttetrapods?Theybecamedependentforfoodonorganismsalreadylivingonland.Theyneededtodevelopnewmechanismsforobtainingnutrients.Theycontinuedtoliveincloseassociationwithaquaticenvironments.Theywereevolutionarilyfarremovedfromtheirrhipidistianancestors.Accordingtoparagraph5,whatwasthemainwaythattheearliesttetrapodsdifferedfromtheirimmediatefishancestors?Thetetrapodshadadifferentskeletalstructure.ThetetrapodshadmoresourcesoffoodavailableThetetrapodshadacirculationsystem.Thetetrapodscouldmovetonewpoolsofwater.P4：Whatecologicalpressuresmighthavecausedfishestograduallyabandontheirwateryhabitatandbecomeincreasinglyland-dwellingcreatures?ChangesinclimateduringtheDevonianmayhavehadsomethingtodowiththisiffreshwaterareasbecameprogressivelymorerestricted.Anotherimpetusmayhavebeennewsourcesoffood.Theedgesofpondsandstreamssurelyhadscattereddeadfishandotherwater-dwellingcreatures.■Inaddition,plantshademergedintoterrestrialhabitatsinareasnearstreamsandponds,andcrabsandotherarthropodswerealsomembersofthisearliestterrestrialcommunity.■Thus,bytheDevonianthelandhabitatmarginaltofreshwaterwasprobablyarichsourceofproteinthatcouldbeexploitedbyananimalthatcouldeasilyclimboutofwater.■Evidencefromteethsuggeststhattheseearliesttetrapodsdidnotutilizelandplantsasfood;theywerepresumablycarnivorousandhadnotdevelopedtheabilitytofeedonplants.■Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.Thesewouldhavebeendepositedbytherecedingwatersofdroughts,duringwhichmanyaquaticanimalsmusthavedied.Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?Clickonasquare[■]toaddthesentencetothepassageDirections:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Somesentencesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.Freshwaterlobe-finnedfishmaybethedirectancestorsofterrestrialtetrapods.???AnswerChoicesRhipidistiancrossopterygianhadfeaturessuchasprimitivelungsandthickfinsthatcouldhavehelpeditsurvivedryperiods.DuringtheDevonian,thenumberofbonesincreasedinthefinsofrtiipidistians,improvingsuchanimals'abilitytoswimandmoveoverlandShortlyaftertheearliesttetrapodsdevelopedlungs,plantsandotheranimalsbegantoflourishonland.BytheDevonianperiod,lobe-finnedfishpreferredfreshwaterhabitatstolifeintheocean.Adrierclimateandnewsourcesoffoodonlandmayhaveencouragedthelobe-finnedfish'smovetoaterrestrialexistence.Earlytetrapodsremainedcloselyconnectedtowater,butseveraloftheirbodystructureswereadaptedforlifeonland.參考答案：1-5.BDACC6-10.DAADB11-13.CAA14.AEFIfyouhaveanyquestionsconcerningthetextsoranswers,feelfreetocontactWechat:geeqi0805.IfyouaretiredoflookingupTPOwordsinadictionary,try《新托福TPO閱讀詞匯速查速記》參考譯文：從魚類到陸生脊椎動物水中棲息的魚類進(jìn)化為陸地四足動物（有脊椎的四肢生物）是地球上發(fā)生過的重大進(jìn)化事件之一。魚類很可能起源于海洋，有關(guān)魚類的最早記錄是在海洋巖石中。然而，到了泥盆紀(jì)（4.08億至3.62億年前），魚類的棲息地已經(jīng)擴(kuò)展到幾乎所有可能的水生環(huán)境，包括淡水水域。淡水沉積巖石中十分常見的是一種葉狀鰭魚化石。研究四足動物進(jìn)化的生物學(xué)家對泥盆紀(jì)時期生活在淡水水域的總鰭魚綱、扇鰭魚目葉狀鰭魚尤其感興趣。這種魚生活在大型三角洲的河道和湖泊里。它們的化石常見于三角洲巖石中，這類巖石因?yàn)楹醒趸F礦物，故而呈紅色，這也表明三角洲形成時已經(jīng)有干濕季節(jié)的交替。如果有干旱期存在，任何有助于魚類度過干旱的進(jìn)化都會是有利的。這些扇鰭魚身上也出現(xiàn)了幾處這樣的進(jìn)化。我們知道扇鰭魚的呼吸器官除了鰓還有肺。一些化石的橫截面顯示，扇鰭魚尸體內(nèi)的泥的稠度和質(zhì)地根據(jù)其在體內(nèi)位置的不同而不同。這些差異表明在魚腸前端下面像腔一樣的東西只可能是肺。鰓無疑是這些魚的主要氧氣來源，但當(dāng)水中含氧量大幅減少時，比如在長期干旱的情況下，肺就會作為輔助呼吸系統(tǒng)來吸氣?？梢?，這些魚已經(jīng)進(jìn)化出陸地生存的必備條件之一：將空氣作為氧氣來源的能力。這些魚的另一個適應(yīng)是在葉狀的鰭。這些鰭很厚、很有肉質(zhì)感、而且十分結(jié)實(shí)，內(nèi)有一條軸心骨。在陸地上魚鰭從一定程度上可以作為運(yùn)動的裝置，或許能使魚為了生存從幾近干涸的池塘挪動到相鄰的有足夠水和氧氣的池塘。這些鰭最終進(jìn)化成了短而健壯的腿。泥盆紀(jì)扇鰭魚的鰭骨在數(shù)量和位置上與已知的最早的四足動物的肢骨完全匹配。應(yīng)該強(qiáng)調(diào)的是，肺和四肢的進(jìn)化并不是因?yàn)樗鼈冾A(yù)料到未來要在陸地上生活。這些適應(yīng)是為了幫助它們在當(dāng)時的水生環(huán)境中存活下來?！缎峦懈PO閱讀詞匯速查速記》，配合TPO使用，帶你高效做題+背單詞。Wechat:geeqi0805是什么樣的生態(tài)壓力導(dǎo)致魚類逐漸放棄在水中的棲息地，逐漸成為陸生生物呢？如果淡水區(qū)域逐步縮減，泥盆紀(jì)的氣候變化可能與此相關(guān)。另一個動力可能是新的食物來源。池塘和溪流的邊緣無疑會散落有死掉的魚和其他水棲生物。此外，溪流與池塘附近的陸地開始有植物出現(xiàn)，蟹和其他節(jié)肢動物也加入了這一最早的陸地群落。因此，在泥盆紀(jì)時期，對于能夠輕易爬出水面的生物，淡水邊緣的陸地很可能是豐富的蛋白質(zhì)食物來源。對四足動物的牙齒的研究表明，最早的四足動物并不食用陸生植物；它們可能是食肉動物，而且也尚未形成食用植物的能力。第一批四足動物是怎樣向陸地環(huán)境過渡的呢？就像早期的陸生植物萊尼蕨類一樣，這些四足動物只是產(chǎn)生了部分變化，這個階段，它們?nèi)匀缓芤蕾囉谒?。不過，早期陸生植物面臨的許多問題并不會困擾到它們。這些動物從祖先起就已經(jīng)有了一個流通系統(tǒng)，它們可以移動，所以可以挪到水邊飲水。另外，它們已經(jīng)有肺了，當(dāng)時扇鰭魚可能都已經(jīng)將其用于輔助呼吸了。最早期的四足動物主要進(jìn)化的是骨骼系統(tǒng)，即鰭骨、脊柱、骨盆、肩胛骨發(fā)生變化。TheUseoftheCameraObscuraTheprecursorofthemoderncamera,thecameraobscuraisadarkenedenclosureintowhichlightisadmittedthroughalensinasmallhole.Theimageoftheilluminatedareaoutsidetheenclosureisthrownupsidedownasifbymagicontoasurfaceinthedarkenedenclosure.ThistechniquewasknownaslongagoasthefifthcenturyB.C.inChina.AristotlealsoexperimentedwithitinthefourthcenturyB.C.,andLeonardodaVincidescribeditinhisnotebooksin1490.In1558GiovanniBattistaDellaPortawroteinhistwenty-volumeworkMagianaturalis(meaning"naturalmagic")instructionsforaddingaconvexlenstoimprovethequalityoftheimagethrownagainstacanvasorpanelinthedarkenedareawhereitsoutlinescouldbetraced.■Later,portablecameraobscurasweredeveloped,withinteriormirrorsanddrawingtablesonwhichtheartistcouldtracetheimage.■Fortheartist,thistechniqueallowsformsandlinearperspectivetobedrawnpreciselyastheywouldbeseenfromasingleviewpoint.■Mirrorswerealsousedtoreversetheprojectedimagestotheiroriginalpositions.■Didsomeofthegreatmastersofpainting,then,tracetheirimagesusingacameraobscura?Somearthistoriansarenowlookingforcluesofartists'useofsuchdevices.OneoftheartistswhosepaintingsarebeinganalyzedfromthispointofviewisthegreatDutchmaster,JanVermeer,wholivedfrom1632to1675duringthefloweringofartandscienceintheNetherlands,includingthescienceofoptics.Vermeerproducedonlyabout30knownpaintings,includinghisfamousTheArtofPainting.TheroomshowninitcloselyresemblestheroominotherVermeerpaintings,withlightingcomingfromawindowontheleft,thesameroofbeams,andsimilarfloortiles,suggestingthattheroomwasfittedwithacameraobscuraonthesideintheforeground.ThemaphungontheoppositewallwasarealmapinVermeerspossession,reproducedinsuchfaithfuldetailthatsomekindoftraceryissuspected.WhenoneofVermeer'spaintingswasX-rayed,itdidnothaveanypreliminarysketchesonthecanvasbeneaththepaint,butratherthecompleteimagedrawninblackandwhitewithoutanytrialsketches,Vermeerdidnothaveanystudents,didnotkeepanyrecords,anddidnotencourageanyonetovisithisstudio,factsthatcanbeinterpretedasprotectinghissecretuseofacameraobscura.InrecenttimestheBritishartistDavidHockneyhaspublishedhisinvestigationsintothesecretuseofthecameraobscura,claimingthatforupto400years,manyofWesternart'sgreatmastersprobablyusedthedevicetoproducealmostphotographicallyrealisticdetailsintheirpaintings.HeincludesinthisgroupCaravaggio,HansHolbein,LeonardodaVinci,DiegoVelazquez,Jean-Auguste-DominiqueIngres,AgnoloBronzino,andJanvanEyck.Fromanartist'spointofview,Hockneyobservedthatacameraobscuracompressesthecomplicatedformsofathree-dimensionalsceneintotwo-dimensionalshapesthatcaneasilybetracedandalsoincreasesthecontrastbetweenlightanddark,leadingtothechiaroscuroeffectseeninmanyofthesepaintings.InJanvanEyck'sTheMarriageofGiovanniArnolfiniandGiovannaCtehneami,complicatedforeshorteninginthechandelierandtheintricatedetailinthebride'sgarmentsareamongthecluesthatHockneythinkspointtotheuseofthecameraobscura.Sowhatarewetoconclude?Iftheseartistsdiduseacameraobscura,doesthatdiminishtheirstature?Hockneyarguesthatthecameraobscuradoesnotreplaceartisticskillindrawingandpainting.Inexperimentingwithit,hefoundthatitisactuallyquitedifficulttousefordrawing,andhespeculatesthattheartistsprobablycombinedtheirobservationsfromlifewithtracingofshapes.:P1：Theprecursorofthemoderncamera,thecameraobscuraisadarkenedenclosureintowhichlightisadmittedthroughalensinasmallhole.Theimageoftheilluminatedareaoutsidetheenclosureisthrownupsidedownasifbymagicontoasurfaceinthedarkenedenclosure.ThistechniquewasknownaslongagoasthefifthcenturyB.C.inChina.AristotlealsoexperimentedwithitinthefourthcenturyB.C.,andLeonardodaVincidescribeditinhisnotebooksin1490.In1558GiovanniBattistaDellaPortawroteinhistwenty-volumeworkMagianaturali(smeaning"naturalmagic")instructionsforaddingaconvexlenstoimprovethequalityoftheimagethrownagainstacanvasorpanelinthedarkenedareawhereitsoutlinescouldbetraced.■Later,portablecameraobscurasweredeveloped,withinteriormirrorsanddrawingtablesonwhichtheartistcouldtracetheimage.■Fortheartist,thistechniqueallowsformsandlinearperspectivetobedrawnpreciselyastheywouldbeseenfromasingleviewpoint.■Mirrorswerealsousedtoreversetheprojectedimagestotheiroriginalpositions.■Whatcanbeinferredfromparagraph1aboutGiovanniBattistaDellaPorta'scontributiontothecameraobscura?HetranslatedaChinesedescriptionoftheuseofthecameraobscuraandmadethetechniqueavailabletoartists.Hisconvexlensmadetheprojectedimageeasiertotrace.Hisversionofthecameraobscuraallowedforthelateradditionofamirror.HisimprovementsreliedheavilyondesignchangesproposedearlierbyLeonardodaVinci.Theword’portable"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtovaluablepracticalmoveablepopularTheword"projected"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtowholecorrectedenlargedshown:P2：Didsomeofthegreatmastersofpainting,then,tracetheirimagesusingacameraobscura?Somearthistoriansarenowlookingforcluesofartists'useofsuchdevices.OneoftheartistswhosepaintingsarebeinganalyzedfromthispointofviewisthegreatDutchmaster,JanVermeer,wholivedfrom1632to1675duringthefloweringofartandscienceintheNetherlands,includingthescienceofoptics.Vermeerproducedonlyabout30knownpaintings,includinghisfamousTheArtofPainting.TheroomshowninitcloselyresemblestheroominotherVermeerpaintings,withlightingcomingfromawindowontheleft,thesameroofbeams,andsimilarfloortiles,suggestingthattheroomwasfittedwithacameraobscuraonthesideintheforeground.ThemaphungontheoppositewallwasarealmapinVermeerspossession,reproducedinsuchfaithfuldetailthatsomekindoftraceryissuspected.WhenoneofVermeer'spaintingswasX-rayed,itdidnothaveanypreliminarysketchesonthecanvasbeneaththepaint,butratherthecompleteimagedrawninblackandwhitewithoutanytrialsketches.Vermeerdidnothaveanystudents,didnotkeepanyrecords,anddidnotencourageanyonetovisithisstudio,factsthatcanbeinterpretedasprotectinghissecretuseofacameraobscura.Paragraph2answerswhichofthefollowingquestionsaboutpaintingsbyVermeer?WhatcharacteristicsofVermeer'spaintingssuggestthathemayhaveusedacameraobscura?WhydidVermeerproduceonlyabout30paintings?DoVermeer'spaintingsingeneralsuggestthathewasunabletopaintaccuratelywithoutusingacameraobscura?WhydidVermeerneedtodrawanimageonthecanvasofthepaintingthatwasX-rayedifhewasusingacameraobscura?Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.OneartistwithaparticularlyinterestingpointofviewabouttheuseofthecameraobscurainpaintingwasJanVermeer,wholivedintheNetherlandsfrom1632to1675.HistoricalanalysessuggestthatDutchmasterswereinterestedinthescienceofoptics,sotheymayhaveusedthecameraobscuratotraceimages.TheuseofthecameraobscuraisbeinganalyzedinthepaintingsofJanVermeer,wholivedintheNetherlandswhenartandsciencewereflourishingthere.OneviewheldbyhistoriansisthatmostDutchmasterswereasinterestedinartastheywereinscience,andthatprovidescluesabout