同等學(xué)力碩士題庫考語用學(xué)筆記整理

語用學(xué)定義語境理論指示語理論、預(yù)設(shè)理論會話含義理論（合作原則、新格萊斯會話含義理論、言語行為理論（起源、經(jīng)典理論、間接言語行為理論）、語用與文化、禮貌原則（含臉-面理論），并能運用這些理論來分析話語和會話?！颳hatispragmatics?Pragmatics,anewsubfieldoflinguistics,dealswithparticularutterancesinparticularsituationsandisespeciallyconcernedwiththevariouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontextsoflanguageperformancecaninfluenceinterpretation。Tobemorespecificpragmaticsisconcernedwiththefollowingareas:Pragmaticsisthestudyofspeakermeaning.Pragmaticsisthestudyofcontextualmeaning.Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowmoregetscommunicatedthanissaid.e.g.:It'shotinhei（p.leaseopenthedoor/air-conditioner）Isthisyourpen?（canIborrowyourpen?/pickitup（request）Tomhadachicken.（ate/possessed/owned）Aboysaystoagirl你不戴眼'鏡的時候很漂亮”，andthegirlimmediatelyresponds我戴眼鏡的“時候一定很丑了”.---Whenwestudylanguage,weshouldpayattentiontopeople,society,notlanguageitselfonly.）★Context?Example:I'vegotaflattyre.Inagarage,thismightbetakentomeanthatIneedhelp;oraddressedtoafriendwithacar,thatIneedalift;orasaresponsetoarequestforaliftfromafriendwithoutacar,thatIcannotgivehim/heralift.?Typesofcontext:linguisticcontext/co-text;situationalcontext;social/culturalcontextLinguisticcontext（上下文哈語語境）:Itreferstospecificpartsofanutterance（ortext）nearoradjacenttoaunitwhichisthefocusofattention.e.g.bankusedinasentencetogetherwithwordslikesteeporovergrownhearsomebodysaythatshehastogettothebanktocashacheckSituationalContext/physicalcontext（情景語境）e.g.bankIfyouseethewordBANKonthewallofabuildinginacity,thel'infliysinGeyourlocationwilinterpretation.-M.A.KHalliday'stheoryolbontextofsituationField（語場）:whatthelanguageisbeingusedtotalkabout;tenor（超語言的，extralinguistic）:therolerelationshipsbetweentheparticipants;mode:therolelanguageisplayingintheinteractionSocial/culturalContext（約定俗成）e.g.AFairyTale打招呼：英語（HOWAREYOU?）漢語（你吃了嗎？）★Deixis（指示語理論）Deixisisatechnicaltermwhichmeans“pointingvialanguage.Themeaningofdeicticexpressionscannotbecapturedbytruth-conditionalsemantics,andtheirinterpretationmustdependonanalysisofthecontextofutteranceinwhichtheyoccur.MainPointsDeixisdirectlyconcernstherelationshipbetweenthestructureoflanguageandthecontextinwhichitisused.Deicticexpressions（指示/另1J語）orsimplydeicticsrefertocertainaspectsoftheircontextofutterances,includingtheroleofparticipantsinthespeecheventandtheirspatio-temporal（空間-時間）andsociallocation.Fiveclassesofdeixisarepresentlyrecognized,namelypersondeixis（人稱指示）,placedeixis,timedeixis,discoursedeixisandsocialdeixis.TwousesofdeicticsGesturalusesTheuseofdeicticstogetherwithparalinguistic（副語言特征，除語言以夕卜的，non-verballinguistic）featuresiscalledthegesturaluse.（e.g.:eyecontact）e.g.He'snotthepresidentseis.He'sthesecretary.Putthepianohere.No,nothere,buthere.SymbolicusesTheuseofdeicticswithoutparalinguisticfeaturesiscalledthesymbolicuse.e.g.Thiscityishighlycongested.Wecan'taffordaholidayabroadhisyear.（exophoricreference）TypesofdeixisfPersondeixisPersonalpronounsUnmarked（無標(biāo)記的，standard,normal,basic）usesvs.markeduses（特殊用法）Vocatives（稱呼語）e.g.”Doyouunderstand?"---（You:listener/hearer;alsosomeotherpeople.）你看電視好好的，他卻把電視給關(guān)了”一這里的你，指說話人.我們年青人應(yīng)該多學(xué)點知識”一老師講給學(xué)生，我們指的是你們.fTimedeixisTimeadverbials:now,then,today,inthreeminutes,twodaysago,etc.Unitsoftime:morning,week,month,etc.Tense:Note:calendar-timeexpressions（e.g.May6,1987）arenotconsidereddeictic.fPlacedeixisHere,thereThis,thatCome,go;bring,takefDiscourse（話語/語篇）deixisThis,thatBut,therefore,inconclusion,tothecontrary,besides,etc.Thelastparagraph,thenextsentence,thefollowingsection,thepreviouswords,etc.fSocialdeixisSocialdeixisistheuseofdeictictermsforindicatingsocialstatusoftheparticipantsinadiscourse,andtheirrelationsdeterminedthereupon.Honorifics(敬稱)tuvs.vousduvs.Sie你vs.您★PresuppositionWhatispresupposition?Apresuppositionissomethingthespeakerassumestobethecasepriortomakinganutterance.Presuppositionsareinferencesaboutwhatisassumedtobetrueintheutteranceratherthandirectlyassertedtobetrue(Peccei,J.1999).e.g.Mary'sbrotherboughtthreeshssrInproducingtheaboveutterance,thespeakerwillnormallybeexpectedtohavethepresuppositionsthatapersoncalledMaryexists;shehasabrother;ConstancyundernegationBasically,itmeansthatthepresuppositionofastatementwillremainconstant(i.e.stilltrue)evenwhenthatstatementisnegated.e.g.Mary'sdogiscutepresupposesthMtaryhasadog.Mary'sdogisn'tcutealsopresupposesthatMaryhasadog.Presuppositionvs.entailmente.g.Johnmanagedtostopintime.Fromtheexamplewecaninfer:Johnstoppedintime.Johntriedtostopintime.Nowtakethenegationoftheexample:Johndidn'tmanagetostopintime.Fromthiswecannotinfer“Johnstoppedintime.”,yettheinferentsssttDpintime."Johntrisedpreservedandthussharedbytheexamplesentenceanditsnegativeform.Onthebasisofthenegationtest,weidentifythatthepresuppositionofboththeexamplesentenceanditsnegativeformis“Johntriedtostopintime.”,butnot“Johnstoppedintime.".Clearly,theexamplesentenceentails“Johnstoppedintime.”,butitsnegativeformdoesnoterNegationaltersasentence'sentailment,butitleavesthepresuppositionsuntouched.AstatementApresupposesanotherstatementBiff:ifAistrue,thenBistrue.ifAisfalse,thenBistrue.e.g.Johnismarried.Johnexists.Johnisnotmarried.Johnexists.AstatementAentailsanotherstatementBiff:ifAistrue,thenBistrue.ifAisfalse,thenBmayormaynotbetrue.e.g.1)Thatpersonisabachelor.Thatpersonisaman.2)Thatpersonisnotabachelor.

Thatpersoncanbeamanorawoman.TypesofpresuppositionExistentialpresuppositionFactivepresuppositionLexicalpresuppositionStructuralpresuppositionsNon-factivepresuppositionCounter-factualpresuppositionTypeExamplePresuppositionTypeExamplePresuppositionExistentialtheXExistentialtheX>>XexistsFactiveNon-factiveLexicalStructuralCounterfactualFactiveNon-factiveLexicalStructuralCounterfactualIregretleavingHepretendedtobehappyHemanagedtoescapeWhendidshedie?IfIweren'till,>>Ileft>>Hewasn'thappy>>Hetriedtoescape>>Shedied>>IamillApropertyofpresuppositionDefeasibility（可撤￥ApropertyofpresuppositionDefeasibility（可撤￥肖性）:Insomecontexts,apresuppositionisdefeasible..Linguisticfactorse.g.Johndidn'tmanagetopasstheexamJohntriedtopasstheexam.Butifutteredinthecontext,Johndidn'tmanagetopasstheexanfatrthedidn'teventryto.Addonemoresentence,thentheoriginalpresuppositioniscancelledbytheutteranceInfacthedidn'teventryto”.Non-linguisticfactorse.g.Shecriedbeforeshefinishedwritingthenovel.>>Shefinishedwritingthenovel.Butintheutterance,Shediedbeforeshefinishedwritingthenovel.thepresuppositionShefinishedwritingthenoveliscancelledbythecommonsenseknowledgethatifsomeonedies,hecannotwritenovelsanymore.Theprojectionproblem（投射問題）:Thepresuppositionsofcomplexsentencesarenotequaltothecombinationofthepresuppositionsofallthesentences.（整體不等于音B分之和）★ConversationalimplicatureMainpoints:TheimportantpointmadebyGriceregardingthetheoryofimplicatureisthedistinctionbetweenwhatissaidandwhatisimplicated.TheCooperativePrincipleisverycommonnotonlyinverbalcommunicationbutalsoinalmostallhumaninteractions,anditisfollowedreasonably,notcompulsorily.ConversationalimplicaturesWhatthehearerinfersfromtheutterancethatisnotopenlystated.ConversationalimplicatureisbasedontheCooperativePrinciple.InGrice'sanalysis,thespeakersfloutingofamaximcombinedwiththehearersassumpInGrice'sanalysis,thespeakersfloutingofamaximcombinedwiththehearersassumpspeakerhasnotreallyabandonedtheco-operativeprincipleleadstoanimplicature.Generally,conversationalimplicaturescanbedividedintotwokinds:generalizedandparticularized.ThecooperativeprincipleMakeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthespeechexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.CPconsistsoffourspecificmaxims.一QuantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.一QualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.一RelationBerelevant.一MannerBeperspicuousAvoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).Beorderly.?Themaximsofthecooperativeprinciplecanbeusedtodescribehowparticipantsinaconversationderiveimplicatures.Gricegivesthefollowingexample.AisstandingbyanobviouslyimmobilizedcarandisapproachedbyB.Thefollowingexchangetakesplace.Iamoutofpetrol.Thereisagarageroundthecorner.AcandeducefromB'sreactionthatBmeansthatthereisagaragearoundthecornerthatisopenandsellsgasoline.B,however,hasnotmentionedthesefacts.Acanonlymaketheseassumptionsifs/heassumesthatBisactinginaccordancewiththecooperativeprincipleandisadheringtothemaximofrelevance.?Featuresofconversationalimplicatures:cancellability(canbecancelled)non-detachability(wecanchangetheform,butthemeaningdoesn'tchange,sotheimplicaturedoesn'tchange.)e.g.a-dsaidironicallywillallimplicateeJohnisagenius.Johnisamentalprodigy.Johnisanenormousintellect.Johnisabigbrain.Johnisanidiot.Calculability可推導(dǎo)性(從字面意思通過合作原則可推導(dǎo)出來)non-conventionalityAconversationalimplicatureistheaddingupoftheconventionalmeaningandthecontextinwhichitisused.Whenthecontextchanges,theimplicaturewillchangeorbelost.e.g.Itiscoldhere.Thesentencemay,inonecontext,generateanimplicaturelike“Closethewindow"but,inanothercontext,ifitissaidbetweentwosmallboysintheopen,therewillbenosuchimplicature.Sotheimplicatureisnotconventional.indeterminacy(不確定性)Thisreferstothefactanexpressionwithasinglemeaningcanproducedifferentimplicaturesasthecontextsandparticipantsvary.e.g.Heisanox.Ifthesentenceissaidbyhissuperiorinpraisinghim,itwillimplythatheistoughandhardworking,whileinanothercontextitmaymeanthatheismild,butstubborn:astubbornasanox”orstox.★Speechacttheorytoanalyzephilosophicalproblemsbylookingatordinarylanguageandtryingtoascertainwhatinsightsitcouldofferintoreality.?Thereisastrikingdifferencebetweenthefollowingtwosentences:e.g.(1)Itsraining.(2)IpromisethatIwillgiveyouonehundreddollarstomorrow.In(1)astatementismadethatmayormaynotbetrue.Asfor(2),however,itisnotpossibletosaythatitistrueorthatitisnottrue.Withverbssuchas'promise'(inthefirstperson),sometonlybeingsaid;moreimportantly,somethingisbeingdone.In(2)anactisbeingperformedintheformofanutterance.Bysaying'Ipromise…',apromiseismade.Butsaying'It'sraining'doesrain.AustinusedthetermsConstative'ancperfOrmative'todescribethisdifference.Inconstatives,suchas(1),somethingissaidaboutreality;inperformatives,suchas(2),anactisperformedbytheutteranceitself.Austinwasnot,however,successfulinestablishingcriteriafordescribingthedifferencebetweenthesetwoconcepts.Itcan,afterall,bearguedthatanactisbeingperformedinthecaseofconstativeutterancesaswell;anindirectrequest(arequesttothehearertohandthespeakerherumbrella)madeorastatement(factualassertionabouttheworld)madeasinthecaseof(1).?fInrecognitionofthefactthatutterancescanbothmakepropositionsandperformactions,AustincametotheconclusionthatallexpressionsoflanguagemustbeviewedasactsHedistinguishedthreekindsofactionwithineachutterance.First,thereisthelbcution'(言內(nèi)之意),thephysicalactofproducinganutterance.Second,thereistheillocution'(言夕卜之意),theactwhichiscommittedbyproducinganutterance:byutteringathreat,athreatismade;byutteringanapology,anapologyismade.Third,thereistheperlodution'(言后之意)theproductionofaneffectthroughlocutionandillocution,forinstance,theexecutionofanorderbythehearer.e.g.It'shotinhere.(indirectspeech)totellthefact.(locution)toletyouunderstandyouneedturnontheair-conditioner.(illocution')YoufinallydoitasIwished.(perlocution)Inspeechacttheory,theillocutionisthefocusofattention.Certainminimumrequirementsmustbemetifanillocutionistobesuccessful.TheAmericanphilosopherJohnSearleformulatedfour'felicityconditions'whichillocutionsmustmeet.Thesefourconditionswillbeillustratedusingtheillocutionpromise'.Felicity(合適的)conditionsforthespeechact'topromise話都將其視為言語行為，都可以通過這四個方面來進(jìn)行分析)propositionalcontentconditionSpredicatessomefutureactAofS.preparatoryconditionSbelievesthatAisinHsbestinterestandthatScandoA.sincerityconditionSintendstodoA.essentialconditionSputsSunderanobligationtoHtodoA.Note:S:speaker;A:act;H:hearer.?Howdoesspeechacttheorycontributetothestudyofdiscourse?First,itcanprovideinsightsintotherequirementswhichtheproductionofaform(thelocution)mustmeettoensurethattheillocutiontakesplace.Thisillocutionservesasaprerequisitefortheachievementoftheintendedperlocution.Second,thistheorycanserveasaframeworkforindicatingwhatisrequiredinordertodeterminetherelationshipbetweenformandfunction,betweenlocutionandillocution.Belowisanexampleintheformofaninterrogative.e.g.Canyoustopbyinaminute?Whyisthisinterrogativegenerallyinterpretedasarequest?Arequestcanbeidentifiedbythefollowingfelicityconditions:FelicityconditionsforrequestspropositionalcontentconditionThecontentmustrefertoafutureact,x,whichistobecarriedoutbythehearer.preparatoryconditionTheheareriscapableofexecutingxandthespeakerbelievesthattheheareriscapableofdoingit.Itisobvioustobothconversationalparticipantsthatthehearerwillnotperformtheactwithoutbeingasked.sincerityconditionThespeakeractuallywantsthehearertodowhathasbeenrequested.d.essentialconditionTheutteranceservesasanattempttopersuadethehearertoexecutex.Inthiscase,thesituationisnotself-explanatoryandknowledgeofthesurroundingenvironmentisrequired.★PolitenessstrategiesThecooperativeprincipleisvalidforinformativelanguageuse.Languageusersarenothowever,alwaysinterestedintheeffectivetransferofinformation.Inthefollowingexamplesthespeakerwantsthehearertoclosethedoor.(15a)Closethedoor.(15b)Theresa'draft.(15c)Wouldyouclosethedoor?(15d)Wouldyoubesokindastoclosethedoor?Accordingtothemaximsofthecooperativeprinciple,(15a)issufficient.Languageis,however,oftenusedmoreindirectly,asisdonein(15b).Theyalsosometimesusecertainpolitenessformssuchasin(15c)and(15d).ErvingGoffman,Americansocialpsychologist,introducedtheconceptof'faceBythishemeanttheimagethatapersonprojectsinhissocialcontactswithothers.Facehasthemeaningasinthesaying'toloseface'.InGoffmanopiHion,everyparticipantinthesocialprocesshastheneedtobeappreciatedbyothersandtheneedtobefreeandnotinterferedwith.Goffmancallstheneedtobeappreciatedpositiveface'andtheneednottobedisturbednegativefdce'.Goffmanwantedsocialinteraction,whichincludesverbalcommunication,tobestudiedfromtheperspectivethatparticipantsarestrivingforstabilityintheirrelationshipswithothers.Participantsinconversationsshould,therefore,notviolateoneanother'sface.Refusingarequestorreprcsomeoneareactionswhichcanformathreattotheother'spositiveornegativeface.Inthecasefacethreateningacts(FTA),somethingisneededwhichwillreducetheviolationoffacetoaminimumandthereforepreservestabilityasmuchaspossible.Thiscanbeachievedbyusingface'worktechniques.'---Usingstrategiesfaceworktechniques'tosolvetheproblemscausedbyfacethreateningacts(FTA).Howdoespolitenessfitintothisapproach??PolitenesspreventsorrepairsthedamagecausedbyFTAs.Thegreaterthethreattostability,themorepoliteness,faceworktechnique,isnecessary.Justastherearetwotypesofface,therearetwotypesofpoliteness.Faceworkthatisaimedatpositivefaceiscalledsolidaritypoliteness",whilefaceworkthatdealswithnegativefaceisknownasrespectpoliteness'.Belowareafewexamples.Whenapersonnelmanagerhastoturndownajobapplicantwhoshouldnothaveappliedinthefirstplaceowingtoalackofeducation,thisisanFTAwhichthreatensthepositivefaceoftheapplicant.Forthisreasonthepersonnelmanagerwillbemoreapttowrite(16b)than(16a).(16a)Wedonotunderstandwhyyoubotheredtoapply..(16b)Wehavesomedoubtsconcerningyourprioreducation.Inthefollowinginteractionbetweenaninstructorandastudentattheendofatutoringsession,thesecondvariantismorepoliteasitislessdamagingtotheinstructor'sfaceandthatofthestudent.(17)A:I'vetriedtoexplainthissclearlyaspossible.NowIhavetoleaveasIhaveanotherappointment.Ihopethatthehomeworkwillbeeasiernexttime.B:(a)Istilldon'tunderstandthematerial.(b)Ifproblemsshouldarise,isitallrightifIstopbytomorrow.?possiblestrategiesfordoingFTAs1.withoutredressiveaction,baldlyOnrecord2.positivepolitenessDotheFTAwithredressiveaction3.negativepolitenessoffrecord(donotmentionexplicitly)非公開的Don'tdotheF(TAon-verbalact)-thehighestrisky.Thefifthstrategyisimplementedwhentheriskofspeakingistoogreat,when,forinstance,anindividualdoesnotriskansweringanimpertinentandface-threateningquestionandsimplyremainssilent.?Belowareexamplesofdifferentstrategiesforaskingapersonforahundreddollars.(18a)Hey,lendmeahundreddollars.(baldly)(18b)Hey,friend,couldyoulendmeahundredbucks?(positivepoliteness)(18c)I'msorryIhavetoask,butcouldyoulendmeahundreddollars?(negativepoliteness)(18d)Ohno,I'moutofcash!Iforgottogotothebanktoday.(offrecord)Thestrategiesarenumberedaccordingtotheirdegreeofpoliteness.(Strategy5isleftoutofconsideration.)IftheWofaFTAishigh,thespeakerwillchooseastrategywithahighernumber.Thisexplainswhygraveaccusationsorinconvenientrequestsareoftenformulatedindirectly(strategy4).Thefollowingquestionisanexampleofanindirectrequest.Areyoudoinganythingspecialtonight?Theformofthisutterancemakesitclearthatthisisaninquiryaboutanindividualplasnedactivities.Thisquestioncan,however,alsobeaninvitationonthepartofthespeakertothehearertogoouttogether.Howcanaquestioninthisformhaveanentirelydifferentfunction?AccordingtoLevinson(1983),theansweristhatinsomecasesspeakersfirstmakeapre-requestinordertofindoutwhethertheywillgetapositiveresponsetotheirrequest.Levinsondescribesthisinanunderlyingstructureconsistingoffourpositions.Belowisanexampleandtheunderlyingstructure.A:(1)Areyoudoinganythingspecialtonight?B:(2)No,notreally.Why?A:(3)Well,Iwantedtoaskifyouwouldliketogoouttodinnerwithme.B:⑷I'dloveto.Theunderlyingstructureof(20):Pre-request'Goahead'reactionRequestConsentGoffman'sworkon'face'offersartionfomthepre-requestphenomenon.IfBhadgivenanevasiveanswertothepre-request,thenthatwouldhaveeliminatedthenecessityofmakingthemainrequest,preventingthelossoffaceofeitherparticipant.AdoesnothavetodealwitharefusalandBdoesnothavetorefusetherequestinadirectmanner;afterthepre-request,Bcanclaimtobeextremelybusywhichwillsoftentheblowoftherefusal.Indirectrequestshavecertainsimilaritieswithpre-requestsinthatbothareattemptstoascertainwhetherornottherearegroundsforrefusingadirectrequest.Considerthefollowingexample.Acustomerwalksintoashoestoreandasks:Doyouselljoggingshoes?Thisquestionisactuallyapreliminarychecktoseeifthesalesclerkwillbeabletogiveanaffirmativeresponsetoarequesttoseeanassortmentofjoggingshoes.InLevinson'opinion,indirectrequestscanbeviewedaspre-requestsinanunderlyingstructureconsistingoffourpositions.A:(1)Doyouselljoggingshoes?B:(2)Yes.(3)Wouldyoushowmesome,p