組織行為學(xué)精要第十版chapter3 individual perception and decision making

3-1EssentialsofOrganizationalBehavior,10/eStephenP.Robbins&TimothyA.JudgeChapter3IndividualPerceptionandDecision-Making3-2Afterstudyingthischapter,youshouldbeableto:Defineperceptionandexplainthefactorsthatinfluenceit.Identifytheshortcutsindividualsuseinmakingjudgmentsaboutothers.Explainthelinkbetweenperceptionanddecisionmaking.Listandexplainthecommondecisionbiasesorerrors.Contrastthethreeethicaldecisioncriteria.Definecreativityanddiscussthethree-componentmodelofcreativity.3-3PerceptionAprocessbywhichindividualsorganizeandinterprettheirsensoryimpressionsinordertogivemeaningtotheirenvironment.Theworldasitisperceivedistheworldthatisbehaviorallyimportant.3-4FactorsInfluencingPerception3-5Perceiver

theindividuallookingatatargetwhoattemptstointerpretwhatisseen.

Anindividual’spersonalcharacteristicsfilterandmodifywhatisperceived.ThreeP’s.3-6Target

theobjectbeingperceived.

Characteristicsofthetargetwillaffecthowitisperceived.3-7Situation

thecontextinwhichtheperceptionismade.

Thecontext(time,location,light,heat,theappropriatenessofattire)caninfluencetheextentofperceptionofatarget.3-8PersonPerceptiontheperceptionspeopleformabouteachother.howpeopleseeeachothercandeterminehowwelltheseindividualscanworktogetherandindicateanorganization’slevelofpotentialconflict.

3-9PersonPerception:AttributionTheorySuggeststhatperceiverstryto“attribute”theobservedbehaviortoatypeofcause:Internal–behaviorisbelievedtobeunderthepersonalcontroloftheindividualExternal–thepersonisforcedintothebehaviorbyoutsideevents/causes3-10DeterminantsofAttributionDistinctiveness–whetheranindividualdisplaysdifferentbehaviorsindifferentsituations(theuniquenessoftheact)Consensus–doeseveryonewhofacesasimilarsituationrespondinthesamewayastheindividualdidConsistency–doesthepersonrespondthesamewayovertime3-11DeterminationofAttribution3-12AttributionErrorsFundamentalAttributionErrorThetendencytounderestimatetheinfluenceofexternalfactorsandoverestimatethatofinternalfactors.Self-ServingBiasOccurswhenindividualsoverestimatetheirown(internal)influenceonsuccessesandoverestimatetheexternalinfluencesontheirfailures.3-13ShortcutsUsedinJudgingOthersSelectivePerception–aperceptualfilteringprocessbasedoninterests,background,andattitude.Mayallowobserverstodrawunwarrantedconclusionsfromanambiguoussituation.HaloEffect–drawingageneralimpressionbasedonasinglecharacteristic.ContrastEffects–ourreactionisinfluencedbyotherswehaverecentlyencountered(thecontextoftheobservation).Stereotyping–judgingsomeoneonthebasisoftheperceptionofthegrouptowhichtheybelong.3-14TheLinkBetweenPerceptionandDecisionMakingDecisionmakingoccursasareactiontoaperceivedproblemPerceptioninfluences:AwarenessthataproblemexistsTheinterpretationandevaluationofinformationBiasofanalysisandconclusions3-15DecisionsandProblemsDecisions:choosingfromamongtwoormorealternativestosolveaproblemortakeadvantageofanopportunity.Problem:adiscrepancybetweensomecurrentstateofaffairsandsomedesiredstatethatrequiresapersontoconsideralternativecoursesofaction.3-16RationalDecision-MakingModel

thetheoreticalmethodforoptimaldecision-makingoftentaughtinbusinessschools.Rational:makingconsistent,value-maximizingchoiceswithinspecifiedconstraints.3-17RationalDecision-MakingModelDefinetheproblem.Identifythedecisioncriteria.Allocateweightstothecriteria.Developthealternatives.Evaluatethealternatives.Selectthebestalternative.Seldomactuallyused:moreofagoalthanapracticalmethod3-18AssumptionsoftheModelCompleteknowledgeofthesituationAllrelevantoptionsareknowninanunbiasedmannerThedecision-makerseeksthehighestutility3-19BoundedRationalityThelimitedinformation-processingcapabilityofhumanbeingsmakesitimpossibletoassimilateandunderstandalltheinformationnecessarytooptimizeSopeopleseeksolutionsthataresatisfactoryandsufficient,ratherthanoptimal(they“satisfice”)Boundedrationalityisconstructingsimplifiedmodelsthatextracttheessentialfeaturesfromproblemswithoutcapturingalltheircomplexity3-20DecisionMakinginBoundedRationalitySimplerthanrationaldecisionmaking,composedofthreesteps:Limitedsearchforcriteriaandalternatives–familiarcriteriaandeasilyfoundalternativesLimitedreviewofalternatives–focusalternatives,similartothosealreadyineffectSatisficing–selectingthefirstalternativethatis“goodenough”3-21IntuitiveDecisionMakingAnnon-consciousprocesscreatedoutofdistilledexperienceIncreaseswithexperienceCanbeapowerfulcomplementtorationalanalysisindecisionmaking3-22CommonBiasesandErrorsOverconfidenceBiasThelikelihoodofoverestimatingtheprobabilityofbeingcorrect.Especiallyprevalentwhenpeopleconsiderissuesorproblemsoutsidetheirareaofexpertise.Knowledgereducesoverconfidence.AnchoringBiasAtendencytofixateoninitialinformationandfailtoadequatelyadjustforsubsequentinformationConfirmationBiasSeekingoutinformationthatreaffirmsourpastchoicesanddiscountinginformationthatcontradictspastjudgments3-23CommonBiasesandErrorsAvailabilityBiasThetendencytobasejudgmentsoninformationthatisreadilyavailableEscalationofCommitmentStayingwithadecisionevenwhenthereisclearevidencethatitiswrongHindsightBiasThetendencytobelievefalselythatwecouldhaveaccuratelypredictedtheoutcomeofaneventafterthatoutcomeisalreadyknown3-24OrganizationalConstraintsonDecisionMakingPerformanceevaluationsRewardsystemsFormalregulationsSelf-imposedtimeconstraintsHistoricalprecedents3-25EthicalFrameworksforDecisionMakingUtilitarianProvidethegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumberRightsmakedecisionsconsistentwithfundamentallibertiesandprivilegesJustice

imposeandenforcerulesfairlyandimpartiallysothatthereisequaldistributionofbenefitsandcosts3-26CreativityinDecisionMakingTheabilitytoproducenovelandusefulideasHelpspeopleto:BetterunderstandtheproblemSeeproblemsotherscan’tseeIdentifyallviablealternativesIdentifyalternativesthataren’treadilyapparent3-27Three-ComponentModelofCreativity3-28GlobalImplicationsAttributions:Cross-culturaldifferencesexist–especiallyincollectivisttraditionsDecisionMaking:CulturalbackgroundofthedecisionmakercanhavesignificantinfluenceondecisionsmadeEthics:NoglobalethicalstandardsexistNeedorganizational-levelguidance3-29ImplicationsforManagersPerception:Toincreaseproductivity,influenceworkers’perceptionsoftheirjobsToimprovedecisionmaking:AnalyzethesituationAdjustyourdecisionapproachBeawareofbiasesandminim