英語(yǔ)各種語(yǔ)言學(xué)

Phonology

語(yǔ)言的音位系統(tǒng)

Speechandwritingarethetwomediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication,ofwhichspeechismorebasicthanwriting,becauselanguageisfirstperceivedthroughsounds,andalsothewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Ashumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshaveeunitsinthelanguagesystem,whicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandconstitutethephonicmedium.Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephonetics(語(yǔ)音學(xué))andphonology(音位學(xué)).2.1Thephonicmediumoflanguage

Articulatoryphonetics:isthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)，研究語(yǔ)音的產(chǎn)生。Auditoryphonetics:isconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué),研究語(yǔ)音怎么被感知。Acousticphonetics:isthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)，研究語(yǔ)音的物理特征。包括：音高；音強(qiáng)；音長(zhǎng)；音質(zhì)。

spectrographs:語(yǔ)圖儀

2.2Phonetics

Phonetics:isdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.Inshort,phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.

2.2.1OrgansofspeechArticulatoryapparatus:

pharyngealcavity（喉腔）oralcavity（口腔）nasalcavity（鼻腔）Thespeechorgans:

Lips,teeth,teethridge(alveolar齒槽),hardpalate,softpalate(velum),uvula（小舌）,tipoftongue,bladeoftongue（舌側(cè)）,backoftongue,vocalcords（聲帶）,pharyngealcavity（咽喉）,nasalcavity

（鼻腔）

人的發(fā)音器官主要由肺、氣管、喉頭、聲帶以及咽腔、鼻腔、口腔三部分組成2.2.2OrthographicrepresentationIn1886,thePhoneticTeachers’AssociationwasinauguratedbyasmallgroupoflanguageteachersinFrancewhohadfoundthepracticeofphoneticsusefulintheirteachingandwishedtopopularizetheirmethods.Itsmainprincipleswerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.ThealphabetwastoconsistofasmanyRomanalphabetlettersaspossible,usingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.Withthedevelopmentofthearticulatoryphonetics,scholarsbegantofeeltheneedofastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonictranscription.TheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)firstproposedtheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetin1886,thentheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)cameintobeing,thefirstversionwaspublishedinAugust1888,whichisthebasicprincipleoftheIPAbyusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.

Diacritics:Assomespeechsoundsproducesdifferonlyinsomedetailedaspects,theIPAprovidesitsuserswithanothersetofsymbolscalleddiacritics,whichareaddedtotheletter-symbolstobringoutthefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemaypossiblydo.

[l]:leaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[hel].[l]:leaf[li:f],occurringbeforesoundvowel,iscalledaclear[l],andnodiacritictoindicateit.[l]:feel[fi:l],build[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[l]asinleaf,Itiscalleddark.[l]:inthesoundofcombination[hel],[l]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound.Broadtranscription:usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clear[l],[pit]Narrowtranscription:usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.dark[l],aspirated[ph]Broad&Narrowtranscription（寬式標(biāo)音&嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音）Aninitialclassificationwilldividethespeechintotwobroadcategories.Vowels:Whicharemodificationofthevoice-soundthatinvolvenoclosure,friction,orcontactofthetongueorlips.(Bloomfield)Avowelisdefinedasavoicedsoundinformingwhichtheairissuesinacontinuosstreamthroughthepharynxandmouth,therebeingnoaudiblefriction.(Jones)2.2.3

ClassificationofEnglish

speechsoundsClassificationoftheEnglishvowels:Thepositionofthetongue（舌位）

front,centralandback,whichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Theopennessofthemouth（口型閉合）

closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.Theshapeofthelip（唇型）roundedorunroundedClassificationoftheEnglishconsonants:Themannerofarticulation:

stops（塞音）；fricatives（察音）；affricates（塞察音）；nasals（鼻音）；liquids（流音）；glides（滑音）.Theplaceofarticulation:bilabial（雙唇音）;labiodental（唇齒音）;dental（齒間音）;alveolar（舌顫音）;palatal（上顎音）;velar（軟腭音）;glottal（喉音）2.3Phonology2.3.1Phonetics&phonology

Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage——thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.

語(yǔ)音學(xué)是音位學(xué)的基礎(chǔ)，研究所有人類語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音及其特征、分類，具有普遍性特征，是研究語(yǔ)音的物理學(xué)特征。Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimstodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.

音位是一個(gè)語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)中能夠區(qū)分詞義的最小的語(yǔ)言單位。音位學(xué)，關(guān)注特定語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音系統(tǒng)，具有特殊性特征，是語(yǔ)音的心理學(xué)特征。語(yǔ)音屬于言語(yǔ)（parole），音位屬于語(yǔ)言（langue）Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.2.3.2Phoneme;andallophone

(音位/音素;音位變體)Phoneme:isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.音位是一個(gè)語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)中能夠區(qū)分詞義的最小的語(yǔ)言單位。ban/pan；ban/binAllophone:Thedifferencephoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemesindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledallophones.

同一音位的不同體現(xiàn)形式稱作音位變體2.3.3SomerulesinphonologySequentialrules:

therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.

e.g.inEnglish,“kbil”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,splendid,scream.a)

thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)

thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)

thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.Assimilationrule：

assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,

e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:eg.cap----can;（nasalizedfortheinfluenceofthefollowingnasalconsonant）tent----tenth（dentalizedbeforeadentalfricative）Deletionrule：ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.

2.3.4SuprasegmentalfeaturesSuprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:

音節(jié)結(jié)構(gòu)音節(jié)

首音(onset)韻(rhyme)

核音(nucleus)尾音(coda)

輔音(群)元音輔音(群)

Wordstress:ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:

verb:im'port;in'crease

noun:'import;'increase

Sentencestress:therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.

e.g.

Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirt

yesterday.

Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright.ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma媽(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma馬(thethirdrise)ma罵(thefourthfall)Whenpitch,stressandlengthva