戰(zhàn)略和企業(yè)家3

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firms.Indeed,alargenumberofnewproductsareintroducedintotheeconomybynewfirms.Strategyessentiallyfocusesonexistingfirmsandtheactivitiesofexistingfirms.Entrepreneurship,ontheotherhand,hasbeenfocusingattentiononthecreativeprocess,particularlyofnewfirms.Wheretheyoverlapisatthenexusofthecreativeprocessofexistingfirms.Thus,eachfieldhasvastterrainsthatdonotoverlap.父,琴th廈is曉c淹ha故pt冬er定n蓄ev購er夕th禽el判es之s劉fo誕cu職se姿s生ex碼cl桐us搞iv使el允y縣on貍w絮he弱re原e累nt至re朵pr沫en版eu鴉rs握hi像p控an致d紀st弄ra島te鍛gi博c默ma臂na矩ge工me睬nt裝o樣ve事rl喉ap垃.Itisworthpointingoutherethatwhendiscussingcreativeprocessesintheeconomicdomain,strategyisasub-setofentrepreneurship.Forexample,foranygivennewtechnicalinventionthereare,atleastintheory,aninfinitenumberofproductpossibilitiesthatmayflowoutofthatinvention.But,inpractice,onlyafinitesub-setofthosepossibilitieswillcomeintoexistence.Ofthosenewproductsthatcomeintoexistence,onlyasub-setisintroducedbyexistingfirms.Indeed,alargenumberofnewproductsareintroducedintotheeconomybynewfirms.Strategyessentiallyfocusesonexistingfirmsandtheactivitiesofexistingfirms.Entrepreneurship,ontheotherhand,hasbeenfocusingattentiononthecreativeprocess,particularlyofnewfirms.Wheretheyoverlapisatthenexusofthecreativeprocessofexistingfirms.Thus,eachfieldhasvastterrainsthatdonotoverlap.傳In法t弱he漏p蠅re論fa茄ce來t刷o生th浩ei到r掃19竄94鳥b繪oo烏k,花R棋um壘el者t,贊S物ch畜en紐de料l,賽a輝nd河T配ee諸ce逐i策de要nt跳if志y儀th犯e掀su敏bj賢ec盤t陳ma賴tt丈er館o盲f轟st損ra鄉(xiāng)te室gi尤c寸ma驗na段ge瓦me脆nt綠a午s鉗"t碧he接p箭ur臉po醋se涌fu申l閣di忙re陵ct獲io逐n利an棚d麗na集tu勺ra嚼l泊ev叔ol釘ut騙io蟻n刮of抹e值nt嗚er新pr戴is末es煎."屑(萌Ru慢me追lt翅,覺et玩.楚al怖.,電1浩99收4)文T脅he鵲y料fu釘rt捆he雖r冊id叛en幫ti臉fy誤f澤ou言r追fu化nd筋am術(shù)en仿ta沖l肺is彩su慰es草t粱ha長t鵝co詞mp禮ri閥se謙a舊r喂es住ea謎rc睡h典ag織en者da引i任n巷st臭ra競te貞gi裕c憲ma育na惰ge建me膚nt每:寇1.泄 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訪Su據(jù)pp艘ly株s憐id上e:茫紙Ne嶺w盒or頑e展xi購st航in她g夠id婦ea貝/s騾o銳r乏in例ve交nt路io倚n/甲s;歪2.枝征 果De浪ma撇nd伐s源id此e:違O南ne停o飄r燈mo崖re悲e殃nd跟s籍–獨ma收y妹be乘s詳ub來je磁ct截iv罩e識(e交nd選og誓en少ou袖s)竟a我sp膜ir峰at欄io扣ns提o魂r勾ob虹je勉ct想iv歪e循(e獸xo瘋ge慈no疏us栽)件go會al防s翅or雞b稻ot對h;Theentrepreneurnotonlyhasanideaforaproductorfirm,butalsohassomepersonalaspirationsand/orgoalsinpursuingtheopportunity.GoalscouldbeasspecificasmakinganIPOinfiveyearstocreatingalegacyfortheirchildren.Andaspirationscouldrangefrommakingmoneytoenjoyinganindependentlifestyletochangingtheworld.Furthermore,theseaspirationsandgoalscouldchangeandnewonescouldemergeovertime.Theentrepreneurnotonlyhasanideaforaproductorfirm,butalsohassomepersonalaspirationsand/orgoalsinpursuingtheopportunity.GoalscouldbeasspecificasmakinganIPOinfiveyearstocreatingalegacyfortheirchildren.Andaspirationscouldrangefrommakingmoneytoenjoyinganindependentlifestyletochangingtheworld.Furthermore,theseaspirationsandgoalscouldchangeandnewonescouldemergeovertime.施3.刺念 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FirmBehavior--EmphasizingthecreativityofhumanactionHowdofirmsbehave?Or,dofirmsreallybehavelikerationalactors,and,ifnot,whatmodelsoftheirbehaviorshouldbeusedbyresearchersandpolicymakers?RationalActionEconomicshaslongrestedonfoundationsofrationalaction;andithaslongbeencriticizedforit.Forexample,studieshaveshownthatthatthereareseverelimits--lackofknowledge,computationalability,andabilitytoconsidermorethanafewfactorssimultaneously--thatplaceanupperboundonhumanobjectiverationality(Simon,1959;Payne,Bettman&Johnson,1993;Bar-Hillel,1980;Tversky&Kahneman,1982).Althoughthisdoesnotimplythatdecisionmakersareirrational,itshowsthattheymustusuallyuseheuristicsandapproximateinductivelogics--thatneverthelessoftenleadtoveryeffectivedecisions(Gigerenzer,Hell&Blank,1988).Theyseldomhavetheluxuryofbehavinglikeutilitymaximizers.Butmostcriticismsofthe"rational"foundationsofeconomicsattackandtrytorelaxassumptionsofrationalityratherthanprovideanoverarchingalternativeframework.In1991,however,BuchananandVanbergcalledformoredrasticmeasures,particularlyforourunderstandingofentrepreneurship(Buchanan&Vanberg,1991).Inthatpaper,theyarguefortheusefulnessofaperceptualconstructofthemarketasacreativeprocess,ratherthanasadiscoveryprocess,orthemorefamiliarallocativeprocess.Theirargumentsarebasedonafundamentalassumptionofthefuturethatisnotmerelyunknown,butessentiallyunknowable.Onlyspeculationsandconjecturesarepossibleaboutthefuturebecausethefutureiscreatedbythechoicesthathumanbeingsmake:“Entrepreneurialactivity,inparticular,isnottobemodeledasdiscoveryofthatwhichis“outthere.〞Suchactivity,bycontrast,createsarealitythatwillbedifferentsubsequentondifferingchoices.Hence,therealityofthefuturemustbeshapedbychoicesyettobemade,andthisrealityhasnoexistenceindependentofthesechoices.Withregardtoa“yettobecreated〞reality,itissurelyconfusingtoconsideritsemergenceintermsofthediscoveryof“overlookedopportunities.〞(178)CreativeactionPursuanttothedetailedargumentsadvancedbyBuchananandVanberg,weproposethefollowinganswertothefirstfundamentalissueinstrategicmanagement:Firmsbehavecreatively.Firmsnotonlyuserationalandanalyticaldecisionmaking,theyalsousecreativeactionasawaytofigureoutbothgoalsandstrategiesinanintrinsicallydynamicprocess.IfwearetobuildtheoriesofstrategicmanagementandentrepreneurshipbasedoncreativeratherthanrationalactionWeusetheterms“rationalaction〞Weusetheterms“rationalaction〞and“creativeaction〞intheirprecisephilosophical/sociologicalmeanings–suchasthoseusedbyParsonsandJoasrespectively(Parsons,19xx;Joas,1996).Wewanttostressthatwedonotmeancreativeactiontobe“irrational〞,nordowesuggestthatrationalitycannotleadtocreativeoutcomesin