屁屁踢語言學chapter 3

Chapter3MorphologyIntroductionThetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledalexicon,oramentaldictionary（心理詞典）.Constructandcomprehendcountlessotherwordsbytheapplicationofgeneralrulesofwordformation.AnEnglishnativespeakerknows

basicword-consume,andcanrecognizeconsumer,andcanconstructandunderstandconsuming,consumption,consumerism,

consumerist.Morphologyisconcernedwithword-formationandwordstructure.ContentsWord

1ClassificationofWords1.1WordFormation3Morpheme,Morph,Allomorph2.3DefinitionofMorpheme2.1ClassificationofMorphemes2.2Derivation3.1Morpheme2OtherTypesofWordFormation3.3Compounding3.2Classificationofwords

accordingtodifferentcriteriaBynotion,wordscanbedividedintotwomaintypes:OpenclassandClosed-classwords(開放類詞和封閉類詞)LexicalandGrammaticalwords(詞匯詞和語法詞)ContentandFunctionwords(實義詞和功能詞)lexical

wordscontentwords.Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbslexicalmeaningmembershipisinfiniteorunlimited.NewwordscanbeaddedExtendible可擴展的Open-classClosed-classgrammatical

wordsfunction

words.Pronouns,prepositions,articlesandconjunctions.GrammaticalsignalsFunctionalmarkers.membershipisfixedorlimitedetc.Fewnewwordsareaddedinextendible低頭族phubbing

低頭族指不論在何時何地，手上都捧著電子產(chǎn)品上網(wǎng)聊天或玩游戲、閱讀和看電影，把自己與社會隔絕開來的人。低頭族以年輕人為主，他們往往不喜歡與人交往，沉浸在自己的世界中不能自拔，對人與人的社會關系危害極大。textpectation

由textmessage(短信)和expectation

(期待)合成，意為發(fā)出短消息后期待回復的那種少女情懷。hiberdating

由hibernation(冬眠)和dating

(約會)合成，意為一約會就不理朋友，有異性沒人性的狀態(tài)。dudevorce由dude(伙計)和divorce

(離婚)合成，意為兩個基友關系破裂。Onlineness由online和loneliness合成，指上網(wǎng)上得太多，隨時看手機刷微信刷朋友圈，可是缺越來越孤獨

神馬，給力，富二代，官二代刷屏，拍磚，潛水，灌水，吐槽…Classificationofwords

accordingtodifferentcriteriaAccordingtothenumberandtypeofmorphemetheyarecomposedof,wordscanbedividedinto:Simplewords簡單詞-monomorphemicwordComplexwords復雜詞Compoundwords復合詞Simpleword1-Morphemewordboy,desire,getComplexwordtwoormoremorphemes2-Morphemewordboy+ish,desir(e)+able3-Morphemewordboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+abl(e)+ity4-Morphemegentle+man+li+nessun+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-Morphemeun+gentle+man+li+nessOver-5-morphemeword(7)anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism反對教會與國家分開學說Compound

word:twoormorefreemorphemesGreenhousehotdogblackbirdWhatthenistherelationshipbetweenwordandmorpheme?Wellaword

mayconsistofonemorphemeormorethanonemorpheme,whileamorpheme

maynotnecessarilyrepresentaword.DefinitionofMorphemeTheminimalunitofmeaning2.1Wordshaveaninternalstructurewhichconsistsof

smallerunits

organized

inaparticularway.Morpheme-themostimportantcomponentofawordstructure

-thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesinformationaboutmeaningandfunction.Read-erboy-s-er:aderivationalsuffixamorphemecarryingtheinformationaboutfunction-formnouns-thedoeroftheaction.-s:apluralmarkeramorphemecarryingtheinformationaboutmeaning-morethanone.

Minimalorsmallestmeansnotdivisibleorunanalyzableintosmallerforms.Morphemecannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.詞素不能再分，否則其詞匯或語法意義就會改變或消失。Themorphemecanbeclassifiedinthreeways:free/boundmorpheme,root/affixmorphemelexical/grammaticalmorpheme.ClassificationofMorphemes2.2Free&BoundMorphemesAmorphemecanbeaword-freemorpheme.Itcanappearinisolationorcanoccuralone.whereasaboundmustbeattachedtoanotherone.ClassificationofMorphemes2.21)monomorphemicwordTin,bar,loaf,piece,bottle2)derivativeconsider:consider-ate,consider-able,consider-ing,consider-ation3)COMPOUNDs.Earthquakegreenhouse(1)Freemorpheme(2)BoundmorphemeBoundmorphemescannotoccuralone.Theymustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme.-s:thepluralformWhat’sthelastletterofboys?s

inflectionalmorphemeaffixesderivationalmorpheme

BoundmorphemeboundrootfreemorphemeinflectionalaffixesmorphemeaffixesderivationalaffixesboundmorphemeboundrootTheworddistemperedhasthreemorphemes.dis-,temper,and–ed,ofwhichtemperisafreemorpheme,dis-and–edaretwoboundmorphemes.Root&AffixMorphemesClassificationofMorphemes2.2InternalstructureofwordsArootmorphemeisthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.詞根是單詞的基礎無法再分成更小的單位1)Allwordscontainarootmorpheme,whichmaybefreeorbound.2)Rootsarenotnecessarilyfreemorphemes.3)Allfreemorphemesareroots.untouchableinternationalismprelude[?pre?lud]receivemultifunction(1)RootmorphemeTTT(2)AffixmorphemeAffixmorphemecanbeusedonlywhenaddedtotherootorthebase.Withreferencetotheirposition,affixescanbegenerallydividedintothreesubtypes,namely,prefix,suffixandinfix.詞綴是附著于詞根和詞干的成分，包括前綴、后綴、和中綴。-oo-,-ee-infoot/feetandgoose/geese

areconsideredasinfixes.1)Most(All)affixesareboundmorphemes.2)Boundmorphemesarealwaysaffixes.

derivationalaffix(prefix/suffix)

Xinflectionalaffix(suffix)TFAccordingtotheirdifferentfunctionsinwordbuilding,affixescanalsobedividedintoinflectionalandderivational.inflectionalaffixeswalkscatscat’swalkedwalkinghappiersexiestderivationalaffixunfairanti-socialmodernizethreatensweetnesslovelyDerivationalmorphemeisaddedtoaroottoformanewword;Inflectionalmorphemesareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers(語法標志表示)tosignifytense,numberandcase.InEnglish,themorphemesequenceinawordisusuallyfixed.Themorphologicalstructureofwordsislikethis:Dprefix+root+Dsuffix+IsuffixmisunderstandingsEnglishinflectionalaffixesAffixesGrammaticalfunctionsExamples-sPluralnumbermarkerThechairsarehis-’sPossessivecasemarkerGenitivecasemarkerJohn’sfriendcamehereVerbalending-sThirdpersonsingularpresenttensemarkerTomtalks-edPasttensemarkerTomtalked-ed/-enPastparticiplemarker/perfectaspectTomhastalked/Itwasstolen-ingPresentparticiplemarker/progressiveaspectTomistalking.-erComparativedegreemarkerHeisthinnerthanTom.-estSuperlativedegreemarkerTomisthetallestinhisclassfreerootrootmorphemeboundrootprefixaffix

suffixfreerootrootmorphemeboundrootinflectionalmorphemeaffixfunctionderivationalmorphemeLexical&GrammaticalMorphemeClassificationofMorphemes2.2Lexicalmorphemesaresocalledbecausetheyhavelexicalmeaning,whichcanbefreeorbound.Thewordemployercontainedtwolexicalmorphemes:therootmorphemeemployandthederivationalmorpheme–er.Differentfromthesuffix–er

inemployer,-erintallerandfasterisnotalexicalmorphemebutagrammaticalmorpheme.(1)LexicalmorphemeGrammaticalmorphemesonlyhavegrammaticalmeaning.Inflectionalmorphemesandfunctionwordsbelongtogrammaticalmorphemes,bothofwhichhavethesimilarfunction.Inflectionalmorphemesfunctionasgrammaticalmarkers.Functionwordsmaybeinsertedintoasentenceaccordingtosyntacticrules.Theinflectionalmorpheme–s’intheman’skindnesshasthesamefunctionasofinthekindnessoftheman.(2)GrammaticalmorphemederivationalmorphemelexicalmorphemerootmorphemeinflectionalmorphemegrammaticalfunctionwordRoot,base,stem,affixes,Arootisthebasicpartofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords,a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.Inter-nation-al-ismABASEDifferentfromtheterm“root”,ifanykindofaffixescanbeattachedtotheform,itisabase.Butifaninflectionalaffixcanbeattachedtotheform,itisastem.base-derivationallyanalyzableRoot-unanalyzablebase-anykind:IAandDAstem-IAThestemofawordmaybe:1).monomorphemicworde.g.work2).Derivativee.g.work+er=worker3).Compounde.g.work+shop=workshop

desirabledesireablebaseDArootunanalyzableundesirableundesirable

DAbaseanalyzable

notastem/rootdesireableroot

undesirablesundesirable-s

stem/basenotrootIAanalyzable

desireddesire-d

stem/base/rootIA

Morphemesmayhavedifferentforms.Thevariantformsofamorphemearecalleditsallomorphs.詞素可以有不同的形式。一個詞素的不同形式叫做它的詞素變體。Morpheme,Morph,Allomorph2.3Allophonesaretheactualrealizationoftheabstractphonemes.抽象的音位表現(xiàn)為音位變體Allomorphsaretheactualrealizationoftheabstractmorphemes.抽象的詞素表現(xiàn)為詞素變體Phone–phoneme-allophoneMorph–morpheme-allomorphAllomorphs

(spelling/pronunciation)Morphemesmayhavedifferentforms.ThemorphemeusedtoexpressindefinitenessinEnglishhastwoforms:abeforeawordthatbeginswithconsonantandanbeforeawordthatbeginswithavowel.Anorange/hour/interestingbookAbuilding/European/universityThreefeaturesoftheallomorphsofonemorpheme:1)commonmeaning;(thepluralmorpheme)2)complementarydistribution;(thepluralform{-n}onlyoccurswithinthelimitednumberofwords:ox)3)inparallelformation.oxen/’oksn/cows/kauz//n/and/z/havethesamefunctionalplaceinthegrammaticalstructureofthelanguage.詞素變體三特征：共同意義；互補分布；平行隊伍。ConversionBackformationCompoundingDerivationInflectionOthermeansofCreatingnewwordsWordFormation3DERIVATIONistheprocessinwhichnewwordsarecreatedfromalreadyexistingwordsthroughaffixation.Incontrastwithinflections,derivationscanhavethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchangedorunchanged.3.1Derivation3.1(a)wordclasschangedUn+

NVun+horseunhorse

-ishAdjfool+lishfoolish

-wiseAdvclock+wiseclockwise(b)wordclassunchangedNNnon+smokernonsmokerVVdis+obeydisobeyAdjAdjil+logicalillogical1)PrefixationPrefixationistheformationofawordbyaddingaprefixtothebase.Thebasicrulesunderlyinginprefixationare:RulesExamplesPrefix+N→Nex-+wife→ex-wifePrefix+V→Vdown-+load→downloadPrefix+ADJ→ADJim-+mobile→immobilePrefix+ADV→ADVil-+legally→illegallyNegation:unfair;nonsmoker;disloyalPejoration(貶義):misjudge;maltreat(treatbadly);

pseudo-classicAttitude:pro-American（infavorof:親美派）;anti-socialDegreeorsize:supermarket,ultraconservative（opionon/actionsfarbeyondthenorm）:極端保守主義的overdressed（dresstooelaborately過分打扮）;

mini-skirt;hyperactive：moreactivethannormal極度亢奮Location:indoor;export;overboard;transatlantic;co-existTimeandorder:preschool;foretell;postgraduate;ex-wife2)SuffixationSuffixationistheformationofanewwordbyaddingasuffixtothebase.Thebasicrulesunderlyinginsuffixationare:RulesExamplesN+suffix+→Vbeautify;computerize;hyphenateN+suffix+→ADJHairy;foolish;picturesque;burdensome;poisonousN+suffix+→ADVClockwise;eastwardV+suffix+→NSimplification;movement;refusal;trainee;worker;coverageV+suffix+→ADJTeachable;dependent;active;excited;depressingADJ+suffix+→NHappiness;acceptability;nationalism;loyalist;tenthADJ+suffix+→VSimplify;modernize;quickenADJ+suffix+→ADVMadly;impulsivelyInflectionINFLECTIONismanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.EnglishinflectionalaffixesAffixesGrammaticalfunctionsExamples-sPluralnumbermarkerThechairsarehis-’sPossessivecasemarkerGenitivecasemarkerJohn’sfriendcamehereVerbalending-sThirdpersonsingularpresenttensemarkerTomtalks-edPasttensemarkerTomtalked-ed/-enPastparticiplemarker/perfectaspectTomhastalked/Itwasstolen-ingPresentparticiplemarker/progressiveaspectTomistalking.-erComparativedegreemarkerHeisthinnerthanTom.-estSuperlativedegreemarkerTomisthetallestinhisclassConversion(zeroderivation)CONVERSIONisactuallythederivationalprocesswherebyawordisadoptedorconvertedtoanewword-classwithouttheadditionofanaffix.(a)putXin/onN(container/location)Theworkerscannedtheapples.Theworkersputapplesincans.(b)giveorprovideNTheyshelteredtheorphans.Theygavesheltertotheorphans.(c)depriveoforremoveNBillweededthegarden.Billcutofftheweedinthegarden.Noun→verb

conversion(a)objectorresultofV.Thislittlerestaurantisquiteafind.Wefoundanicelittlerestaurant.(b)AgentofV.Heisagreatbore.Heisapersonwhoboreseveryone.(c)InstrumentofV.Theclothisagoodcoverforthetable.Icoveredthetablewithacloth.Verb→noun

conversion(a)partialconversion:somefeaturesofnounsanddonottakepluralandgenitiveinflections,norcantheyprecededbydeterminers.Thepoorwereoppressedbytherichduringpreliberationdays.Adjective→noun

conversion(b)completeconversion:takeallthefeaturesofnouns.Heisanaturalforthejob(naturallyfittedorqualified).Adjective→noun

conversion(a)intransitiveverb:e.pale,slim,idleHepaledatthesightofblood.(a)transitiveverb:cause…..toeblunt,empty,sober(up)Heemptiedthebasket.Adjective→verb

conversionBack-formationBACK-FORMATIONreferstoa

“reversal”ofderivation,whichisformedbydeleting-ing,–erand–ion

fromexistingnouns.housekeeping/housekeeper→housekeepairconditoning→airconditonghostwriter→ghostwriteglobetrotter→globetrotCompoundingCOMPOUNDINGisaword-formationprocessthroughwhichnewwordsarecreatedbycombiningatleasttwofreemorphemes.Syntacticrelations(a).heartbeat(b).birthcontrol(c).swimmingpool(d).honeybee(e).moonwalk(f).peasantgirlNounCompoundsSyntacticrelations(a).Subject-verb(b).Verb-object(c).Verb-adverbial(d).Subject-object(e).Restrictiverelation(f).AppositiverelationSyntacticrelations(a).Theheartbeats(b).controlbirth(c).swiminthepool(d).beeproduceshoney(e).awalkonthemoon(f).ThegirlisapeasantSyntacticrelations(a).thunder-struckhouse(b).peaceloving(c).new-laideggs(d).taxfreeAdjectiveCompoundsSyntacticrelations(a).Subject-verb(b).Verb-object(c).Verb-adverbial(d).Noun-adjectiveSyntacticrelations(a).Thethunderstruckthehouse(b).lovepeace(c).xhaslaideggsrecently(d).freefromtaxAcronymy:InitialismsandAcronyms

縮略法Clipping(abbreviation)截斷法BlendingOnomatopoeiaborrowingMinorProcessesofWordFormation3.3Initialisms首字母縮略詞Firstletter,pronouncedletterbyletterVIP,ID,UNAcronyms首字母拼音詞Firstletter,pronouncedaswordsBRICS,TEFL,SISU

radar(radiodetectingandranging)無線電探測器AIDS

acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndromeAbbreviation(縮寫法)ItisalsocalledCLIPPING

(截斷法),thatis,anewwordis1)createdbycuttingthefinalpart.AdvertisementadDormitorydormExpositionexpo2)bycuttingtheinitialpartAeroplane

planeCaravan

vanPeriwig

wig3)bycuttingboththeinitialandfinalpartInfluenzafluRefrigeratorfridge

DetectivetecBlendingBLENDINGisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.e.g.:Smog,motel,chunnel,brunch;,psywarOnomatopoeiaONOMATOPOEIAisawayofcreatingwordsbyimitatingthesoundsoftheoutsideworld.Thefollowingexamplecomesfromthepoem“HowDoestheWaterComeDownatLodore”writtenbytheEnglishpoetRobertSouthey羅伯特·騷塞(1774-1843),inwhichmorethantwenty

onomatopoeticwordsareusedinsuccession:Hereitcomessparkling(起泡沫的),

Andthereitliesdarkling(在暗中)

…

Eddying(起漩渦)

andwhinking(閃爍),

Spouting

(噴水)

andfrisking