英語修辭學(xué)省公開課一等獎全國示范課微課金獎?wù)n件

EnglishRhetoricBySongPingfeng

ChapterTwoBriefHistoryofWesternRhetoric

1/37Page21.

Classicalrhetoric2.RhetoricintheMiddleAges3.RhetoricintheRenaissance4.NewClassicRhetoric5.ContemporaryRhetoricContentsofThisChapter2/37Page3TheconceptofrhetoricingeneralAlongwithgrammarandlogicordialectic,rhetoricisoneofthethreeancientartsofdiscourse.Rhetoricnormallyexplainsthethreeartsofusinglanguageasameanstopersuade(logos,pathos,andethos),aswellasthefivecanonsofRhetoric:memory,invention,delivery,style,andarrangement.FromancientGreecetothelate19thCentury,itwasacentralpartofWesterneducation,fillingtheneedtotrainpublicspeakersandwriterstomoveaudiencestoactionwitharguments.3/37Page41.Classicalrhetoric(5thB.C–5thA.D.)Intheancienttimes,rhetoricevolvedasanimportantart,onethatprovidedtheoratorwiththeforms,means,andstrategiesforpersuadinganaudienceofthecorrectnessoftheorator'sarguments.RhetoricoriginatesfromtheancientGreece.Itprovidestwonecessaryconditionsfortheclassicalrhetoric.1.1Necessaryconditionsofclassicalrhetoric(1)GreekDemocracy:Democracyprovidesanecessaryconditionforthebirthofclassicalrhetoric.TheancientGreeksareauniquepeople.TheybelievedthatindividualsshouldbefreeaslongastheyactedwithinthelawsofGreece.Thisallowedthemtheopportunitytoexcelanydirectiontheychose.Individualitywasthebasisoftheirsociety.TheabilitytostriveforexcellencewaswhatAtheniansdearlybelievedin.(2)Greatthinkers/scholars:Therearealotofgreatthinkers/scholarsintheancientGreece,suchasSocrates(蘇格拉底),Plato(柏拉圖),andAristotle(亞里士多德).TheirgreatWordsandthoughtsarestilltaughtinuniversitiestothisday.Mostofthemaregreatrhetoricians.4/37Page51.2ThesocialandpoliticalorganizationsofAncientGreece:(1)PolisorCity-state:In508B.C.,thecityofAthensbecameoneofthefirstpolis,oroneofthefirstcity-statesinancienttimes.(2)DemocracyandCouncil:In508B.C.,Cleisthenes(克利斯提尼，他將索倫立法改革制訂成法律文件，通常被認(rèn)為是雅典民主政治創(chuàng)建者)institutedanewpoliticalorganizationwherebythecitizenswouldtakeamorecarefulandmoredirectroleinrunningthecity-state.Hecalledthisnewpoliticalorganization“demokratia”,ordemocracyrulebytheentirebodyofcitizens.HecreatedaCouncilofFiveHundredwhichplannedthebusinessofthepublicassemblies.ItwastheCouncilthatprovidedpeopleaplaceofpublicspeaking.5/37Page61.3SophistsandtheirpracticesofrhetoricOutofgrowingdemandforeducationinthe5thcenturyB.B.,Greececalledintoexistenceaclassofteachersknownassophists.Sophistwereaprofessionalclassratherthanaschool,andassuchtheywerescatteredoverGreeceandexhibitedprofessionalrivalries.Thesophistsundertooktoprovideastockofargumentsonanysubject,ortoproveanyposition.Theyboastedoftheirabilitytomaketheworseappearthebetterreason,toprovethatblackiswhite.OnerepresentativeofthemwasGorgias.“Manisthemeasureofallthings.”人類是衡量全部事物標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。6/37Page71.4SomeAncientGreekRhetoriciansandtheirtheory(1).Corax(科拉克斯)CoraxofSyracuseandhisstudentsTisias(蒂西亞斯，有名捉刀人，專門為訴訟者撰寫訴狀)werethefirstrhetoriciansinhistory.Histheory:thefirstisatheoryofhowargumentsshouldbedevelopedfromprobabilities;thesecondistheirfirstconceptoforganizationofamessage.AccordingtoCorax,legalargumentsshouldconsistoffourparts:introductory,explanation,argumentationandconclusion.(Corax將法律演說分成四個部分：序言，解釋，論辯和結(jié)論。)7/37Page8Platomaintainedthatrhetoricwastheexpressionoftruthandtheartofrationaldiscourseratherthantheartofeloquentexpression.Hearguedthatclarity,consistencyandnaturalnessweretheonlyfeaturesnecessaryfortheeffectivepresentationofideas.Heassertedthatgenuineeloquencederiveditsforcefromtruthandspontaneity.This,inpart,wasareactiontotheuseofrhetoricalartificebytheSophistsasameansofdeceivingandmanipulatingpeople.(2)Platoandhistheoryaboutrhetoric8/37Page9柏拉圖著作中很多地方都表示了對修辭貶斥。在《高爾吉亞篇》中，蘇格拉底聲稱，修辭“創(chuàng)造是這么一個勸服方式：它只制造對正義與非正義看法，卻對怎樣認(rèn)識它們毫無教益”（Plato：455a）；修辭家“不需要了解事物真實(shí)面目，他只需找到某種方式讓那些無知人相信他比真正有知識人更有知識就行了”（459b）。所以，修辭與真理無關(guān)，根本不關(guān)心真理，甚至帶有顯著坑騙意味。然而，柏拉圖對修辭看法并非一成不變。海德格爾在1924-1925年講授《智者篇》時提出，柏拉圖修辭觀念有一個演變過程，其軌跡能夠經(jīng)過比較三篇對話勾勒出來（Brogan：3-15）。《高爾吉亞篇》代表了早期柏拉圖全盤否定修辭態(tài)度；海德格爾認(rèn)為，在《智者篇》中，柏拉圖態(tài)度有了重大改變，轉(zhuǎn)而相信修辭對“不在”（non-being）或者說“存在”之外領(lǐng)域關(guān)注應(yīng)該在哲學(xué)中占據(jù)一席之地，辯證（dialectic）能夠克服修辭坑騙傾向，使之為哲學(xué)服務(wù)；《斐德若篇》(Phaedrus)則是發(fā)生這一轉(zhuǎn)變關(guān)鍵場所。在這篇對話中，柏拉圖著重探討了真理（aletheia）與語言（logos）關(guān)系。9/37Page10拉斐爾最著名壁畫是為梵蒂岡宮繪制《雅典學(xué)院》。這幅巨型壁畫把古希臘以來５０多個著名哲學(xué)家和思想家聚于一堂，包含柏拉圖、亞里士多德、蘇格拉底、畢達(dá)哥拉斯等，以此歌頌人類對智慧和真理追求，贊美人類創(chuàng)造力。/NewInfor/html/30370.htm10/37Page11Aristotle,Plato'sstudent(384-322BC)famouslysetforthanextendedtreatiseonrhetoricthatstillrepayscarefulstudytoday.InthefirstsentenceofTheArtofRhetoric,Aristotlesaysthat"rhetoric”isthecounterpartofdialectic.Hemeansthatrhetorichasadomainorscopeofapplicationthatisparalleltobutdifferentfromthedomainorscopeofapplicationofdialectic.Rhetoricisusedinplaceofdialecticwhenwearediscussingcivicissuesinacourtoflaworinalegislativeassembly.Thedomainofrhetoriciscivicaffairsandpracticaldecisionmakingincivicaffairs,nottheoreticalconsiderationsofoperationaldefinitionsoftermsandclarificationofthought–these,forhim,areinthedomainofdialectic.(3).Aristotle(亞里士多德)

andhistheoryaboutrhetoric11/37Page12Aristotleheavilyemphasizesthethreebasicelementsinrhetoric:logos(邏輯),pathos(情感)andethos(人格).Logoscontainsprofoundimplicationsoflogic.Whenappliedtothepracticeofspeakingandwriting,logosreferstotheuseoflogicalreasoningtopersuadetheaudienceorreaders.E.g.TousChinese,learningaforeignlanguageisnotaneasything.Afterall,itisdifferentfromourmothertongue.Otherscanlearnitwell,whynotwe?Effectivelogicalreasoningcomesfromsound（完美）logicalthinking,expressedinrelevantmaterial,properorganization,coherentsentences,andwordsthatappropriatelyconveyone’sintendedmeanings.Examinethefollowingexampletakenfromastudent’scomposition:12/37Page13(1)Informallogic,therearetwobasicapproachesforlogicalreasoning:InductivereasoningandDeductivereasoning

Logos:Formallogicandsyllogism（形式邏輯和三段推理法）a)Whatisdeduction(演繹推理)?Deductionistheinferenceofparticularinstancesbyreferencetoagenerallaworprinciple.(TheNewOxfordDictionaryofEnglish)（演繹推理是由普通原理或規(guī)律推出關(guān)于特殊情況下結(jié)論）Or:Deductionisreasoningfromgeneralprinciplestoparticularcases.e.g.Allmenmustdie.人固有一死。（Majorpremise)Iamaman.我是人。(Minorpremise)ThereforeImustdie.我一定會死。(Conclusion)

13/37Page14b)Whatisinduction（歸納推理）?Inductionistheinferenceofagenerallawfromparticularinstances.(ditto)（歸納推理是由一系列詳細(xì)事實(shí)概括出普通規(guī)律）Or:

Inductionisthemethodoflogicreasoningwhichcontainsordiscoversagenerallawfromparticularfactsorexamples.E.g.Goldisaconductor.金是一個導(dǎo)體。

Silverisaconductor.銀是一個導(dǎo)體。

Copperisaconductor.銅是一個導(dǎo)體。

Ironisaconductor.鐵是一個導(dǎo)體。

Theyareallmetals.它們都是金屬。

Allmetalsareconductors.全部金屬都是導(dǎo)體。14/37Page15(2)Whatissyllogism（三段推理法）?Syllogismrepresentsdeductivereasoninginapatternconsistingofamajorpremise,aminorpremise,andaconclusion.e.g.Allmetalsareconductors.(Majorpremise)Copperisametal.(Minorpremise)Thereforecopperisaconductor.(Conclusion)Moreexamplesabouttheuseoflogos:96%ofdangerousdriversaremen.93%ofdrunkdriversaremen.81%ofparkingoffendersaremen.Sowhyshouldwomenhavetopaythesameforcarinsurance?（Women’sOwn,July31,1995）15/37Page162.

Pathos:

theuseofemotionalappealstoaltertheaudience'sjudgment.Theeffectsofemotionalappealsincludemoralanger,ambition,excitement,fear,happiness,pityaswellasvariousotherfeelings.Originally,theterm“pathos”referredtotheemotioningeneralwhichaspeakertriedtoarouseintheaudience.Inmodernrhetoric,itrangesfromthestudyofthepsychologyoftheaudienceorreaderstotheapplicationoftechnologytoconvincethembyemotionalappeals(情感魅力).Theeffectsofemotionalappealsincludemoralanger,ambition,excitement,fear,happiness,pityaswellasvariousotherfeelings.Byplayingupon(利用)suchfeelings,thewriterintendstochangethebeliefsandbehaviorofhisorherreaders.

Changesintheconnotationofpathos（情感含義改變）16/37Page17Theuseofemotionalappealsisallaroundus.Itisanessentialelementinadvertising,publicrelations,image-making(塑造形象),andeducation,especiallyin“affectiveeducation”(情感教育).Inmodernmanagement,thepracticeofwhatiscalled“emotioninvestment”(感情投資)isalsoassociatedwithpathos.Forinstance,themanagerrememberstoprepareagiftforeachmemberofthestaffonhisorherbirthday.Effectiveappealstotheemotionsdependupontheskilfuloftenwittyhandlingoflanguage,frequentlyaccompaniedby“exposure”（揭露）and“eloquence”（口才）.Pathosinusetoday（當(dāng)今所用情感）17/37Page18(1).“Exposure”evokesmoralindignation(義憤，不平)sometimeshumorously,sometimesangrilybycondemningtheunjustrealityorrevealingthedifferencebetweenhowthingsshouldbeandhowtheyare.ThefollowingisaletterthatshowshowanAmericanmotherresortsto(采取)thisskilltomoveotherstostandagainsttheUSunjustwaragainstVietnam:18/37Page19Iammorethanangry.Ididnotgivebirthtomyoneandonlysontohavehimsnatchedawayfromme18yearslater.Mychildhasbeenlovedandcaredforandtaughtrightfromwrongandwillnotbefedintoanyegomaniac’s(極端利己主義者)warmachine.Our18-to25-year-oldshavenotbroughtthistoworldtoitspresentsorrystate.Menovertheageof35,downthroughthecenturies,havebroughtushere,andwewomenhavebeensilentaccord.Well,thisisonewoman,onemother,whosaysNo.Ididnotgothroughthemagnificentagonyofchildbirthtohavethatgloriousyounglifesnuffedout.Untilthepresidents,premiers,supremerulers,politburos(政治局),senatorsandcongressmenoftheworldarereadytophysically,asopposedtoverbally,leadtheworldintocombat,theycanbloodywellforgetmychild.Unitemothers!Don’tthrowyoursonsanddaughtersaway.Sometime,somewhere,womenmustsayno.No.No.No.No.No.Nevermychild.19/37Page20CommentsMother’sloveforchildrenisprofound,anduniversal.Thewriteroftheletterisamotherherself,andtherefore,herappeal(呼吁)hasaspecialeffectinarousingthesympathyofothermothers.

MoreExamplesabouttheuseofpathos:Isn’tittimeforyourlifetobeeasier?（電腦廣告）Isherskinreallythisbeautiful?(Maxfactor粉底霜廣告)Thisiswhatthebestpeopleuse.（化裝品廣告）聰明媽媽會用鋅。（某補(bǔ)鋅產(chǎn)品廣告）Wartodayisdifferent.Schoolsandhospitalcommunitiesareattackedasstrategictargets.Childrendie.Childrensuffer…Butiftheyremainoutofsightandoutofmind,ourbesteffortswillfallfarshortoftheirneeds.Willtheworldhelp?這則廣告號召大家參加幫助兒童活動以克服戰(zhàn)爭留給兒童痛苦。20/37Page21(2)“Eloquence”referstolanguageusedpowerfullyandfluentlytoappealtopeople’snobleremotionsthesenseofhonor,loveofone’scountryandhometown,desiretoreachtowardvirtue(到達(dá)效果).Eloquenceisoftenusedemotively,toexpressone’semotionsandevokethesympathyoftheaudienceonsolemnoccasionsorissuesofgreatsignificance.Inthisaspect,thespeechmadebyMartinLutherKing,JR.（馬丁.路德.金）,onAugust28,1963,attheMarchonWashington(在向華盛頓行進(jìn)路上),canberegardedasafinesampleof“theemotionalcrescendo(=climax高潮)ofanemotionalday”21/37Page223.Ethos:

howthecharacter(品質(zhì))andcredibilityofaspeakercaninfluenceanaudiencetoconsiderhim/hertobebelievable.

Inordinaryspeechorwriting,ethosreferstothepersonalstanding,academicauthority,andmoralqualitiesofthewriterorspeaker,usedtoguaranteeorevenraisethewriter’sorspeaker’scredibility(可信度)andacceptability(可接收性)intheeyesofthereadersoraudience.Forinstance,whenamagazineclaimsthatAnMITprofessorpredictsthattheroboticeraiscomingin2050,theuseofbig-name"MIT"(aworld-renownedAmericanuniversityfortheadvancedresearchinmath,science,andtechnology)establishesthe"strong"credibility.22/37Page23Thefollowingareafewcasesindicating“ethos”inpractice:a.Inanthologies(詩歌)ortextbooks,thereisusuallyabriefaccountofeachtextanditsauthor,whichtendstohelpreaderstostudyitandtoincreasetheirinterestinstudyingit.This,infact,canberegardedasanapplicationof“ethos”.b.Abookusuallyhasaprefaceanditisalmostalwayswrittenbyanauthoritativesource.Thepurposeisinevitablytoraisethesocial,literaryoracademicstandardofthebook,forthereisalwaysapositiveintroductionandfavorablecommentonthepublication.Inaddition,thebiding(裝訂)andlayout(版面設(shè)計)ofabook,aphotoandanintroductionabouttheauthorareallassociatedwithethos.23/37Page24c.Thetitles,positions,address,fax(電傳)andtelephonenumbersonone’snamecardallhavesomethingtodowithethos,whichnotonlyhelppeoplecommunicatebuttheyalsoprovidecredibility.d.Ataconference,thechairperson’sintroductionofeachspeakerisalsomeanttoraisethesocial,personalandacademicstatusofthespeaker,andifthespeakergivestheaudienceastrikingimpressionbyhisopeningremarks,hewillprobablybesuccessfulinhisspeech.24/37Page25(3).Aristotle(亞里士多德)andhistheoryaboutrhetoricInhisRhetoric,Aristotleclassifiedoratory雄辯演說intothreecategories:political(議政演說),

forensic(法學(xué)演說)andceremonial(宣德演說).

Politicaloratoryurgestheaudiencetodoornottodosomething;forensicoratoryattacksordefendssomebody;theceremonialoratorypraisesorcensussomebody.25/37Page261.5SomeRomanrhetoriciansandtheirtheory(1)CiceroandhistheoryCicerowasastatesmanandphilosopher.ForCicero,rhetoricisabranchofpoliticalscience.Hesynthesized(綜合,合成)therhetoricofPlato,IsocratesandAristotle.HedividedAristotle’ssectionontheproofsintoseparatecategoriesandexpandedthepartsofanargumentfromfourtosix:1)Exordium(introduction);2)narratio(adiscussionofwhathasoccurredtogeneratetheissuetoberesolved);3)partitio(adivisionoftheargumentoroutlineofthepointstobeproven);4)confirmatio(proofsfororconfirmationoftheargument);5)refutatio(proofsdisprovingtheopponent’sarguments);6)conclusio(areviewoftheargumentandafinalappealtotheaudience)Ciceroalsosuggestedthreelevelsofstyle:high,middle,andlowwhichwereintendedrespectivelytomove,delight,andteachtheaudience.26/37Page27QuintilianfurtherexpandedCicero’srhetoricandemphasizedtheideathatagoodspeakermustbeagoodman.Rhetorshouldbebroadlyeducated.(2)QuintilianandhistheoryQuintilianandCiceromodifiedanddevelopedAristotle’sconceptionofrhetoric.Theirgreatestcontributiontoclassicalrhetoricisthetheoryof“fiveArts”or“FiveCannons”:1)inventio(invention);2)dispositio(arrangement);3)elocutio(style);4)memoria(memory);5)pronuntiatio(delivery)27/37Page281).Inventionisaboutthediscoveryofvalidorseeminglyvalidarguments,mainlyconcernswho,what,when,where,howandwhy.Thisistheartofdiscoveringameansforfindingargumentsonanytopic.2).Arrangementisabouthowtoorganizetheproofseffectively.Thisisthemethodoforganizinganargument.3).Styleisaboutdictionandtheorganizationofphrase,i.e.,abouteffectivesentences,clarity,forceandbeautyandusingfiguresofspeech.28/37Page294).Memoryistheartofcommittingthespeechtomemorybymnemonicdevices.Amnemonicreliesnotonlyonrepetitiontorememberfacts,butalsooncreatingassociationsamongeasy-to-rememberconstructsandlistsofdata.5).Deliveryistheartofspeakingconcerningthespeakers’pose,tone,gesture,facialexpression,andsoforth.29/37Page30SummaryoftheClassicalRhetoric(1)ClassicalrhetoricisthetheoreticalsourceoftheWesternrhetoric.Itexertsgreatinfluenceoverthedevelopmentofrhetoricinalllaterhistoricalperiods.SomescholarscommentthattheearlyrhetoricinEuropeancountriesafterclassicaltimescontainfeworiginalideas,theyweremerelyreproductionofclassicalrhetoric.(2)themostinfluentialrhetoriciansofclassicaltimesareAristotle,CiceroandQuintilian.30/37Page312.RhetoricintheMiddleAges1).Socialcondition2).MajorachievementsTheearlyMiddleAgesareoftencalledthe“DarkAges”becausethegreatcivilizationsofGreeceandRomehadfallen.LifeinEuropeduringtheMiddleAgeswasveryhard.Fewpeoplecouldreadorwriteandnobodyexpectedconditionstoimprove.Rhetoricbecamebothapracticalartandanacademicsubject.Rhetoricservedtheclergy,whosesermonspersuadedcongregationstoacceptChristianity,andsecularorecclesiasticalcourts.IntheMiddleAges,undergraduatestudentswhopursuedthebachelorofartsdegreestudiedthetrivium(中世紀(jì)大學(xué))三學(xué)科:grammar,logic,andrhetoric.Thestudyofrhetoricwasdividedintotwoarts:letter-writingandpreahcing.(2)Stylebegantoassumegreaterimportance,togetherwithdeliverydominatingtheotherfourcannonsofclassicalrhetoric.31/37Page323.RhetoricintheRenaissanceRenaissancerhetoricianscanbedividedintothreegroups:(1)TheTraditionalists:continuetostudythefiveartsofrhetoric.RepresentativeswereDesideriusErasmusandThomasWilson.ThomasWilsonwrotethefirstEnglishrhetoricbookArteofRhetorique,whichmarksthestartsofEnglishRhetoric.(2)TheFigurists:subordinatelogictorhetoric,emphasizetheimportanceofstyle.(3)TheRamists:subordinaterhetorictologic.Ramistrhetoricintensifiestheseparationbetweenthefiveartsandtheimportanceoftheirsequence.Theydi