語言學(xué)講義考研8Pragmatics.ppt

1、考研講義8 Pragmatics,Grace Tan,主要考點,言語行為的定義，種類，實例分析 合作原則及其四條準(zhǔn)則的內(nèi)容，實力分析 會話含義 語句意義和句子意義的區(qū)別,T/F,The cooperative principle, an important pragmatic principle proposed by Grice, aims to explain how we mean more than we say. A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion. According to

2、Searles classification of speech acts, request, order, suggest and advise all belong to the same one general class because they are all intended by the speaker to get the hearer to do sth. TTT,Multiple choice,1.An illocutionary act is identical with _ A.sentence meaning b.the speaker,s intention C.l

3、g understanding d.the speaker,s competence 2.the indirect speech act was developed by A.John Austin B.Levinson C.John Lyons D.John Searle,Definition,Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning

4、s. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.,Syntactics,Semantics,Pragmatics,In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced the word “Pragmatics” into literature. 莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年符號基礎(chǔ)理論中提出符號三分說： 句法學(xué)（符號關(guān)系學(xué)）Syntacti

5、cs 是研究符號與符號之間的關(guān)系；語義學(xué)semantics是研究符號與符號所指對象的關(guān)系；語用學(xué)pragmatics則是研究符號與符號解釋者的關(guān)系。,符號三分說 Syntactics: the formal relation of signs to one another. Semantics: the relations of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable. Pragmatics: the relation of signs to interpreters.,Both are concerned with stu

6、dy of meaning. 沒有第一層次的研究，很難進行第二層次的研究 語用意義不能脫離語言本身因有的內(nèi)在意義 語義學(xué)是對語言能力(competence)的研究 語用學(xué)是對語言行為(performance)的研究 語言行為是語言能力的具體體現(xiàn)actual realization Chomsky,Semantics the case of bequeathing ones watch; the case of betting Features of typical performatives: Use first person singular subject, simple present

7、tense, indicative mood, active voice and performative verbs,53.The sentence “ I apologize!” belongs to the category of _ according to the speech act theory. A.expressive B.performative C.representative D.constative Answer: B,19.The _ function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language

8、because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. A.performative B.phatic C.recreational D.emotive Answer: D,81.The function of the sentence “Lovely weather, isnt it?” is _ A.informative B.phatic C.performative D.recreational Answer: B,Func

9、tions of Language,informative （信息功能） interpersonal function （人際功能） Performative (施為功能，該概念來自于Austin also, if Y is true, X is false.,3)Non-detachability: it means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. 如果話語在特定的語境中產(chǎn)生了語用含義，則無論使用

10、什么樣的同義結(jié)構(gòu)，含義始終存在。 假如大家都知道Jack is an idiot,但偏要嘲笑說Jack is a genius，含義為“杰克非常愚蠢?！备恼f任何一種同義結(jié)構(gòu)，含義不變： A: Shall we go to the cinema tonight? B: Therell be an exam tomorrow. Ill take an exam tomorrow. Isnt there an exam tomorrow?,4) Non-conventionality非規(guī)約性 Conversational implicature is by definition different

11、from the conventional meaning of words. It is context-dependent. It varies with context. 會話含義是通過合作原則中各項準(zhǔn)則，通過話語的字面意義，結(jié)合語境推導(dǎo)出來的。先有字面意義，才有語用含義。含義不是字面意義，也不是字面意義的一部分。字面意義在話語中是不變的，而語用含義卻可能各式各樣，隨著語境的變化，含義也可能變化或消失。 Its cold here. A1：下午踢球去吧！ A2：老王住院了？ B：上午還在換草皮。 A3: 足球場安裝了一個新門柱。,Explain the relationship betw

12、een cooperative principle and conversational implicature. Pragamatically account fo the difference between (1) What do you mean by X? AND (2) What does X mean? Explain with examples the reasons why utterance meaning is context-dependent.,南開2003,A professor wrote a reference letter for his past stude

13、nt X WHO is applying for a fellowship in philosophy:”Dear sir, Mr.Xs command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular.”Make comments on this letter in terms of the theory of converational implicature.,Movie scene:lovers walking by the lake. Boy: You look beautiful wh

14、en donot wear glasses. Girl(angrily): then I must be ugly with my glasses on. No matter how the boy explained, it was in vain. Explain the reasons why the conversation became such a mess.,Post-Gricean developments,Relevance theory the Q- and R-principles,Relevance theory,Dan Sperber and Deidre Wilso

15、n argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. Communication should be seen as an act of making clear ones intension to express something, and t

16、his act is called an ostensive act.,Relevance Theory 關(guān)聯(lián)理論,語用學(xué)者除了研究“說話人意義”之外，更轉(zhuǎn)向研究“話語的理解”問題。 “話語的理解”的學(xué)者熱衷于從認(rèn)知的角度看待自然語言交際。 與交際、認(rèn)知有關(guān)的關(guān)聯(lián)理論是近年來給西方語言學(xué)界帶來較大影響的認(rèn)知語用理論。 這種理論體系不以規(guī)則為基礎(chǔ)（rule- based），也不以準(zhǔn)則為基礎(chǔ)（maxim-based），而是以幾個十分簡單的看法作為依據(jù)。,The theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in the

17、ir book Relevance: Communication and Cognition(關(guān)聯(lián)性：交際與認(rèn)知). They argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. 每一個明示交際行動都傳遞一種假定：該行動本身具備最佳關(guān)聯(lián)性。,Two

18、key notions in it: Ostensive communication & presumption of optimal relevance 1) Ostensive communication: Communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference. They maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer. From the speakers side, communication shou

19、ld be seen as an act of making clear ones intention to express something. This is called ostensive act. A complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferential(明示-推理).,明示-推理交際是交際過程的兩個方面。 從交際者的角度看，交際是一種明示過程。所謂“明示”，就是示意，明白無誤地示意。交際時，說話人用明白無誤的明說表達(dá)出自己的意圖； 而從交際對象的角度看，交際又是一種推理的過程。這

20、里的所謂“推理”，指聽話人從說話人用明示手段提供的信息中推斷出說話人暗含的意圖。 說話人話語的明示過程實際上提出了一個供聽話人推理的認(rèn)知環(huán)境。例如： A: Do you like rugby(橄欖球運動）? B: I am a New Zealander.,2) Presumption of optimal relevance 交際雙方之所以能配合默契，主要由于有一個最佳的認(rèn)知模式-關(guān)聯(lián)性。要認(rèn)知，就要找關(guān)聯(lián)，要找關(guān)聯(lián)，就要思辨、推理。 Three definitions of relevance: 1. An assumption is relevant in a context if an

21、d only if it has some contextual effect in the context. 當(dāng)且僅當(dāng)一個設(shè)想在一種語境中具有語境效應(yīng)時，這個設(shè)想在這個語境中才具有關(guān)聯(lián)性。 A: Come and have a drink this evening. B: Im afraid I have to go to a meeting.,But relevance is a comparative concept. Some assumptions may be more relevant than others. They have improved on the definiti

22、on by adopting an extent-condition(程度條件) format: Extent condition 1: An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large. 如果一個設(shè)想在一個語境中的語境效應(yīng)大，那么這個設(shè)想在這個語境中就具有關(guān)聯(lián)性。,Extent condition 2: An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the ef

23、fort required to process it in this context is small. 如果一個設(shè)想在一個語境中所需的處理努力小，那么這個設(shè)想在這個語境中就具有關(guān)聯(lián)性。,2. An assumption is relevant to an individual at a given time if and only if it is relevant in one or more of the contexts available to that individual at that time. 當(dāng)且僅當(dāng)一個設(shè)想在某一時刻，在某人可及的一種或多種語境中具有關(guān)聯(lián)性時，這個設(shè)想

24、才在當(dāng)時與那個個體相關(guān)聯(lián)。 3. An assumption is relevant to an individual if and only if one or more of the assumptions it makes manifest is relevant to him. 當(dāng)且僅當(dāng)某個現(xiàn)象顯映的一個或多個設(shè)想與某個體相關(guān)時，這個現(xiàn)象才與該個體有關(guān)聯(lián)。,Presumption of optimal relevance means: 1. The set of assumptions I which the communicator intends to make manifest

25、to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth the addressees while to process the ostensive stimulus. 發(fā)話者意欲向聽話者顯映的設(shè)想集，具有足夠的關(guān)聯(lián)性，使聽話人值得花時間去處理該明示性刺激信號。 2. The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate I. 這一明示刺激信號，是發(fā)話者傳遞設(shè)想集I時所能運用的關(guān)聯(lián)性最大的信號。,Every u

26、tterance comes with a presumption of the best balance of effort against effect. On the one hand, the effects achievable will never be less than is needed to make it worth processing. On the other hand, the effort required will never be more than is needed to achieve these effects. In comparison to t

27、he effects achieved, the effort needed is always the smallest.,Of all the interpretations of the stimulus which confirm the presumption, it is the first interpretation to occur to the addressee that is the one the communicator intended to convey. E.g. George has a cat. The first interpretation is Ge

28、orge has a big domestic cat. But it may also be used to mean George has a tiger, a lion, a jaguar（美洲豹）etc. But this will not be the most relevant on account of the increased processing effort involved. The first interpretation consistent with the principle of relevance is always the best hypothesis.

29、,最佳的關(guān)聯(lián)性來自最好的語境效果；人們對話語和語境假設(shè)的思辨、推理越清楚，人們在思辨和推理過程中無須付出太多的努力，就能取得好的語境效果，從而正確理解話語，使交際獲得成功。,Questions,1. Define the following terms. 1) performative 2) constative 3) locutionary act 4) illocutionary act 5) perlocutionary act 6) cooperative principle 7) conversational implicature 2. Which of these utteran

30、ces contain “performative verbs” and how did you decide? 1) I apologize. 2) He said he was sorry. 3) I bet you 20￥. 4) I drive a Mercedes.,3. If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would you be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory. 4. How do you understand Grices CP and its maxims? Give an example to the violation of each of its maxims?,5. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances. The daughter walks into the kitc